Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Μ. Ασία

1. The Ancient Greek Bouleuteria

Bouleuteria served as meeting places for citizens' assembly and played an important role in the public life of the ancient Greek city.¹ At first, the religious and political gatherings were held at the same places. However, the separate functions and different architectural forms of the facilities started to appear in the Late Archaic period.² As a result, from the late 6^th century and until the Classical period the theatre architecture follows its own development. Simultaneously, the evolution of the political organization and administrative system of the Greek cities resulted in the creation of specific architectural forms of public buildings intended for meetings, either within the Agora or in the immediate vicinity. The assembly of the Ekklesia usually took place in outdoor spaces, the Ekklesiasteria,³ while roofed buildings, the Bouleuteria, housed the meetings of the Boule, the representative council of the citizens,⁴ which convened, decided on community matters and prepared the matters to be discussed in the Ekklesia, thus acting mainly as a legislative body.

Bouleuteria were still important in Hellenistic times, when – although the cities were incorporated into larger administrative units – the assembly of the Ekklesia was still a significant institution in the city’s self-government.⁵ Bouleuteria were among the grandiose building plans the rulers had and, together with the theatre, the agora and the gymnasium, were integral parts of the life of all Greek cities, while as architectural structures they acquired a monumental character.

2. Architectural Form and Typological Development of Bouleuteria

Written sources and archaeological evidence prove a total of 72 Bouleuteria existing in the ancient Greek world.⁶

According to their architectural design and their ground plan, the ancient Greek Bouleuteria may be classified in the following architectural types:⁷

a) Oblong buildings with an axial colonnade. This type includes the earliest examples of Bouleuteria, dating from the Archaic period, while their architecture follows the oblong forms in which the temples were built in the Geometric period.⁸

b) Bouleuteria of square or rectangular plan with seats arranged in U-shape, along the three sides of the building. It is an architectural type possibly following the tradition of the hypostyle meeting halls and particularly spread in Asia Minor.⁹ In the specific type of square plan belong the Bouleuteria of Assos, Aegae and Priene, while the Bouleuterion in Νotium, possibly one of the earliest examples, and the Bouleuterion in Heraclea by Latmus have rectangular plan.¹⁰

c) Bouleuteria of a rectangular or square plan, whose seats were arranged in a curved (such as the Bouleuteria of Termessus and Ariassos)¹¹ or, more often, in a semicircular layout. This particular architectural type created in Asia Minor and including most of Hellenistic Bouleuteria combines architectural characteristics of the hypostyle halls and the theatre. The combination of the hall with the auditorium, which rises all around, gave a monumental character to the architecture of Bouleuteria, while at the same time the internal supports were either reduced or eliminated (such as the Bouleuterion in Alabanda, Antiphellos (modern Kaş) and Ιassos as well as the Gerontikon in Nyssa). The use of the semicircular auditorium in a rectangular roofed building first appears in the Bouleuterion of Miletus (2^nd c. BC) and influences decisively the architecture of Bouleuteria in Late Hellenistic times. It also acted as a model of designing Roman odea.¹²

In general, in Hellenistic times the architecture of Bouleuteria developed and acquired a monumental character. Their exceptional construction may be compared with the way the temples of the time were constructed in terms of both size and luxury. Until the Roman basilicas appeared, the Hellenistic Bouleuteria were the largest roofed public structures. Their capacity varied between 200 and 1,500 people. As regards their external appearance, they had two floors and were elaborately decorated, while windows or light holes at high levels lighted the interior. Peristyle courtyards and propyla completed the complex.¹³

3. Functions

Bouleuteria played a particularly important role in the public life of the ancient Greek city. They were mainly intended for political assemblies, while they served some secondary functions as well. Official documents and state archives as well as stelae inscribed with decrees and important decisions were kept within their premises.¹⁴

Bouleuteria were also the place of worship for particular deities of the Greek pantheon that protected the proceedings of the Boule, such as Zeus Boulaios, whose cult is evidenced in the Bouleuteria of Miletus and Aegae, Athena Boulaia, Hestia Boulaia, Apollo and Artemis, as patron gods of political life and, finally, Poseidon.¹⁵The altars dedicated to Hestia held a prominent position at the centre of the room, the orchestra, as it happened in the Bouleuteria of Priene, Heraclea by Latmus, Cnidus and Troy (Illium).

In Roman times, when the Greek cities lost their political autonomy and the political role of the Boule as a symbol of local government was limited, the functional character of Bouleuteria was affected. Bouleuteria also served as odea, where dramatic and musical performances, as well as recitations were attended. They were often used for educational purposes.¹⁶

4. Decoration

The information about the decoration of Bouleuteria comes from written sources and archaeological finds. In the Hellenistic period the monumental architecture of these public buildings was accompanied by appropriate decoration. Internally the walls were covered with marble and adorned with paintings. Statues of gods, important figures of the cities in the Roman years, personifications of the Demos and democracy as well as portraits of eminent citizens completed the interior decoration.¹⁷

5. Bouleuteria-Odea

The odea were roofed theatrical buildings that developed greatly in Roman times and had an auditorium, a skene and an orchestra. They were intended for dramatic and musical performances and appeared in the first half of the first century BC (around 80 BC). During the Roman times in the eastern part of the empire the Roman odeum is combined with the Greek bouleuterion in terms of both typology and function. The architectural design of the odea adopts the form of the Late Hellenistic bouleuterion and it develops it further. The only difference between the two types is often the wooden structure of the skene the odea had. For this reason, scholars claim a combined building type of the bouleuterion-odeum that was developed in Asia Minor around the 2^nd century AD in order to meet the social requirements of the time. This combination is achieved either by constructing buildings serving a dual purpose, which at the same time are places for making decisions about the city and places for pure entertainment, such as the Bouleuterion-Odeum in Ephesus and Aphrodisias, or by adding a skene and transforming former Bouleuteria into odea, as it happened with the Bouleuterion of Miletus and the Gerontikon of Nyssa.¹⁸

6. Bouleuteria of Asia Minor

The contribution of the examples from Asia Minor to both the study of the architecture of the ancient Greek Bouleuteria and the clarification of their functional character is invaluable. The preserved remains of Bouleuteria date from the Hellenistic period and are classified into the above mentioned types (b) and (c).

One of the most important Bouleuteria is the Bouleuterion of Priene, which dates in the second half of the 2^nd century BC.¹⁹ The Bouleuterion of Assos, in the northeastern part of the Agora of the city, also presents architectural interest. It dates in the first half of the 2^nd century BC and follows the typological tradition of the Bouleuteria of classical period. It includes a square meeting hall with a colonnade on the facade. In the interior there were 4 pillars supporting the roof, while along the three walled sides there were amphitheatrically arranged wooden seats.²⁰ The Bouleuterion of Aegae, dating in the 1^st century AD and situated on the northern part of the Agora, was of similar morphology. It was a hypostyle square hall with a row of pillars or columns on the front. In the interior and along the walls there were rows of stone seats arranged amphitheatrically, while four pillars in normal arrangement supported the roof of the building. Only remains of the foundations of the stone seats and the entablature are preserved today, while an inscription from the epistyle testifies the worship of Zeus Boulaios, Hestia Boulaia and the Demos.²¹

The Bouleuterion of Notium dates in the 3^rd or the 2^nd century BC and is situated to the east of the Agora. It was a rectangular building with four rows of stone seats amphitheatrically arranged in U-shape. An internal colonnade behind the row of the highest level was intended for supporting the roof.²² The Bouleuterion of Heraclea by Latmus (2^nd c. BC) was of the same design.²³

The architecture of the Bouleuterion in Ariassos (or Kretopolis) of Pisidia is of particular interest because its ground plan and morphology are similar to the Odeum of Agrippa in Athens. It is a rectangular building dating in the 1^st century BC. It includes a square assembly hall, where the stone seats are arranged in a curve, and an oblong anteroom, which communicated with the main hall through three doors.²⁴The Bouleuterion of Termessus follows almost the same architectural design; it dates in the 2^nd century BC and is situated in the southern part of the city’s Agora. It was a square building without internal supports. It had two floors and the exterior was richly decorated, while the windows were high up the walls.²⁵

However, the finest example of ancient bouleuterion is considered the Bouleuterion of Miletus (174-164 BC),²⁶ whose architectural decoration served as a model for constructing the Late Hellenistic bouleuteria in Asia Minor, such as the Bouleuteria in Τeos of Ionia (2^nd c. BC), Αlabanda (2^nd c. BC) of Caria, Antiphellos²⁷ of Lycia (1^st c. BC). The Bouleuterion of Iassos in Caria, which has been preserved in very good condition, is influenced by the architecture of the Bouleuterion of Miletus. It was in the southern part of the Agora. It includes a rectangular assembly hall with a semicircular auditorium, which was divided by two staircases into three cunei. On both ends of the auditorium there were staircases as well. The entrances to the room were on the two corners of the northern side, while between them there was the skene, with elaborate architectural and sculptural decoration on the facade, with aediculae and pillars. The construction of the building was completed in two phases, the first towards the late 1^st century BC and the second in the Imperial Era.²⁸

Architectural remains of Bouleuteria have been found in other Asia Minor cities as well, such as Aspendus (2^nd c. BC),²⁹ Sagalassos (2^nd c. BC),³⁰ Νyssa, Cnidus (1^st c. BC)³¹ and Troy (1^st c. AD),³² while written sources evidence testify the existence of Bouleuteria in Magnesia ad Μaeandrum,³³ Antioch on the Orontes, Halicarnassus, Heraclea Pontica, Cyzicus, Pergamon, Chalcedon and in Pinara.³⁴

1. In 1941 the first scientific research regarding the ancient bouleuteria was published by F. Kirschen, while in 1943 another study on the same subject was made by McDonald. However the work of D. Geisz was very important for the research of this topic. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990) . Details regarding the contribution and the evaluation of the so far published studies, see D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990) p. III-VI.

2. It is worth noting that the functional distinction of these facilities was not clear, since religious events, dramatic performances and citizen’s assembly took place in the theaters. See M.H. Hansen, T. Fischer-Hansen, "Monumental Political Architecture in Archaic and Classical Poleis", in D. Whitehead (ed.) From Political Architecture to Stephanus Byzantius ( Historia Einzelschriften 87) (Stuttgart 1994) p. 24, 44-45, 48-53. Brill’s New Pauly 2 (Leiden , Boston 2003) see word "Assembly buildings" col. 174 (C. Höcker).

3. The ekklesiasteria never gained a specific architectural type. The existence of ekklesiasteria is testified in a few Greek cities. In Asia Minor, the unique example is the ekklesiasterion in Tralleis recorded by Vitruvius (7.5.5). On the ekklesiasteria see Brill’s New Pauly 2 (Leiden , Boston 2003) see word "Assembly buildings" col. 174-178 (C. Höcker). H. Hansen, T. Fischer-Hansen, "Monumental Political Architecture in Archaic and Classical Poleis", in D. Whitehead (ed.) From Political Architecture to Stephanus Byzantius (Historia Einzelschriften 87) (Stuttgart 1994) p. 53-76. On the use of the agora and theatre as a meeting place for the assembly see M.H. Hansen, T. Fischer-Hansen, "Monumental Political Architecture in Archaic and Classical Poleis", in D. Whitehead (ed.) From Political Architecture to Stephanus Byzantius (Historia Einzelschriften 87) (Stuttgart 1994) p. 44-53

4. On the Boule: Brill’s New Pauly 2, col. 740-742, see word “Boule” (P.J. Rhodes).

5. See H. Müller, "Bemerkungen zu Fuktion und Bedeutung des Rats in den hellenistischen Städten", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995), p. 41-54.

6. See M.H. Hansen, T. Fischer-Hansen, "Monumental Political Architecture in Archaic and Classical Poleis", in D. Whitehead (ed.) From Political Architecture to Stephanus Byzantius (Historia Einzelschriften 87) (Stuttgart 1994) p. 37-41, there are presented the ancient Greek Bouleuteria according to literary sources and archaeological evidence.

7. Our knowledge on the architecture of the ancient Greek Bouleuteria derives mainly from the preserved remains. The classification was made by Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die fruhromische Curia (Wien 1990), Κεφ. ΙΙΙ, p. 53-152. See also Meinel R., Das Odeion. Untersuchung an uberdachten antiken Theatergebauden (Frankfurt am Main 1979) p.159-187. W. Lauter, Die Architektur des Hellenismus (1986) p. 164. Kockel, V., «Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext», in M. Worrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Burgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, Munchen, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (Munchen 1995), p. 29-40.

8. On the earlier architectural types of the bouleuteria, see D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990) p. 58-72.

9. According to the scholars, the development of this type was based on the hypostyle halls of Attica such as the Telesterion in Eleusis and the Odeion of Pericles, used as meeting places W. Müller Wiener, Η Αρχιτεκτονική στην αρχαία Ελλάδα, trans. Σμιτ Δούνα Μ. (Θεσσαλονίκη 1995), p. 174. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 74-89.

10. See V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995) p. 32. On the contrary D. Geisz distinquishes the bouleuteria of this type in two different categories according to their ground plan: those with square plan see D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990) p. 72-106 and those with rectangular plan see D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990) p. 106-111.

11. Η. D. Geisz classifies these bouleuteria in a different category. See D. Geisz , Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990) p. 135-139.

12. W. Lauter, Die Architektur des Hellenismus (1986) p. 164. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990) p. 129-147. V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995) p. 32.

13. Half columns or antae divided the walls of the upper structure and influence the aesthetic result of the building. Similar morphological details are observed in the bouleuterion in Miletus, in Termessus, in Sagalassus, and in Alabanda. W. Lauter, Die Architektur des Hellenismus (1986) σελ. 165. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 200-203. H. Tuchelt, "Buleuterion und Ara Augusti. Bemerkungen zur Rathausanlage von Milet", IstMitt 25 (1975) p. 109-114. V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995) p. 34.

14. W.A. Mc Donald, The political Meeting places of Greeks (Baltimore 1943) p. 155-165. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990) p. 205.

15. In the bouleuterion two or more deity were often worshipped. Zeus Boulaios was worshiped in the majority of bouleuteria, often accompanied by Athena Boulaia. Zeus Boulaios with Hestia Boulaia and Demos were worshipped in the Bouleuterion in Aegae, while Apollo Didymaios with Hestia Boulaia and the Demos in the bouleuterion of Miletus.

16. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 204-213. Kockel, V., "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995), p. 35-36.

17. The bouleuterion in Kyzicus was decorated with the bronze statue of a certain Diocles, while the personification of Democracy adorned the bouleuterion in Pergamon. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p.196-199, 212-213.

18. Regarding the bouleuteria-odeia see D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p.ΙΙΙ, 163-174, 201-205. Meinel R., Das Odeion. Untersuchung an überdachten antiken Theatergebäuden (Frankfurt am Main 1979), p. 314-327.

19. The identification of the building as an ekklesiasterion has been disputed in the modern bibliography, where it is characterized as bouleuterion. M.H. Hansen, T. Fischer-Hansen, "Monumental Political Architecture in Archaic and Classical Poleis", in D. Whitehead (ed.) From Political Architecture to Stephanus Byzantius (Historia Einzelschriften 87) (Stuttgart 1994) p. 72. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p 346-7. Kockel, V., Bouleuteria "Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995), p. 33-34. F. Rumscheid, Priene, A Guide to the “Pompeii of Asia Minor” (1998) p. 46-59.

20. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p 100, .307-308. W.A. Mc Donald, The political Meeting places of Greeks (Baltimore 1943) p. 168-170. F. Krischen, Antike Rathauser (Berlin 1941) p. 19-21.

21. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 100, 301. W.A. Mc Donald, The political Meeting places of Greeks (Baltimore 1943) p.166-167. V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995), p.31, footnote. 14.

22. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 106, 338. W.A. Mc Donald, The political Meeting places of Greeks (Baltimore 1943) p. 217-219. V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995), p. 32, footnote. 20.

23. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p 109, 322. F. Krischen, Antike Rathauser (Berlin 1941) p. 22-33. W.A. Mc Donald, The political Meeting places of Greeks (Baltimore 1943) p. 192-197.

24. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 327-328. F. Krischen, Antike Rathauser, (Berlin 1941) p. 16-18. V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995), p.32 footnote. 24.

25. F. Krischen, Antike Rathauser, (Berlin 1941) p. 16-18. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p 135, 353-354.

26. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 144-147, 335-336. H. Knackfuss, Das Rathaus von Milet (Milet 1.2, Berlin 1908). G. Kleiner, Die Ruinen von Milet (Berlin 1968) p. 77-88. F. Krischen, Antike Rathauser, (Belin 1941) p. 7-12. H. Tuchelt, "Buleuterion und Ara Augusti. Bemerkungen zur Rathausanlage von Milet", IstMitt 25 (1975) p. 91-140. W.A. Mc Donald, The political Meeting places of Greeks (Baltimore 1943) p. 211-217. A.W. Lawrence, Greek Architecture (New Haven, London 1996) p. 203. W. Lauter, Die Architektur des Hellenismus (Darmstadt 1986) p. 164-165. V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995), p. 31.

27. On the bouleuterion in Teos see D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 147, 353. On the bouleuterion in Alabanda see D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p 147, 303-304. On the bouleuterion in Antiphellus see D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p 147, 304-306.

28. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 147, 323-324. On the bouleuterion in Iassos see Johannowsky W., "Osservazioni dul bouleuterion di Iasos", Ostraka 3, 1994, p. 451-454. Bonifacio R., "Su un rilievo con scena di banchetto dal bouleuterion di Iasos", Ostraka 3, 1994, p. 455-465.

29. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 307.

30. See M.Waelkens, “Die Neuen Forschungen (1985-1989) und die Belgischen Ausgrabungen (1990-1991) in Sagalassos” in E. Schwertheim (ed.) Forschungen in Pisidien (Asia Minor Studien 6, Bonn 1992) p. 50. L. Vandeput, The Architectural Decoration in Roman Asia Minor, Sagalassos, A case study (Leuven 1997) p. 15-16.

31. D. Geisz, Das antike Rathaus: das griechische Bouleuterion und die frührömische Curia (Wien 1990), p. 326. It is situated outside the city-walls and its use as a bouleuterion has been disputed, see V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext", in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München1995), p. 36.

32. W.A. Mc Donald, The political Meeting places of Greeks (Baltimore 1943) p. 248-249. C. Brian Rose, “The 1998 Post-Bronze Age Excavations at Troia” Studia Troica 9 (1999) p. 46-49.

33. The bouleuterion in Magnesia ad Maeandrum was situated in the agora. Although the place has been excavated, none of the buildings found can be identified as a bouleuterion. Thus it is stated that the bouleuterion in Magnesia consists a non recognizable building-type, which didn’t have the common architectural features of the bouleuteria. See V. Kockel, "Bouleuteria Architectonische Form und urbanistischer Kontext," in M. Wörrle- P. Zanker (ed.), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus : Kolloquium, München, 24. bis 26. Juni 1993 (München 1995), p.35, footnote 44.

34. On the bouleuteria testified by ancient sources see M.H. Hansen, T. Fischer-Hansen, "Monumental Political Architecture in Archaic and Classical Poleis", in D. Whitehead (ed.) From Political Architecture to Stephanus Byzantius (Historia Einzelschriften 87) (Stuttgart 1994) p. 37-41.