1. Origins of the name of the theme

Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos (913-920/944-959), in his text On themes, informs us that the area’s inhabitants were called Thrakesians because they came from Thrace; He also adds that they were «laborious» and «manual workers». The scholar emperor places this migration to Asia Minor in the distant past, during the reign of the Lydian king Alyattes (617-560 BC), father of Croesus, and attempts to verify this opinion with an ancient anecdotal story which is known from Herodotus (5.17) and from other ancient sources: Alyattes (or Darius according to Herodotus) was admiring the diligence of the wife of a Thracian immigrant and this was the cause for him to organize the migration of numerous Thracians to the area.¹ This almost mythical version offered by Porphyrogennetos seems to hold some grain of truth also for the mid-Byzantine period: it suggests the movement of populations from Thrace to Asia Minor possibly around the middle of the 7th century: the area was called Thrakesion by these Thracian immigrants and the theme which later defended it was called theme of Thrakesion or Thrakesion.²

2. History - geography

2.1. Regarding the establishment of the theme of Thrakesion

The theme of Thrakesion must have been established at around the beginning of the 8th century but the first phases of its historical course are not very clear. It is usually believed that the theme was initially the tourma of the theme of Anatolikon.³ Another opinion has also been offered however, according to which it is considered possible that the theme of Thrakesion was included among the four initial large Asia Minor themes (Anatolikon, Armeniakon, Opsikion, Thrakesion), a view which is not entirely without problems.⁴ The discordance which exists regarding the early phase of the history of the theme of Thrakesion also hinders the investigation as to whether the Thrakesion turma, included among the forces sent by Justinian II (685-695, 705-711) to Cherson under the leadership of the tourmarch Christophoros was, as supported previously a turma of the theme of Anatolikon or if it was a turma of the already established theme of Thrakesion.⁵ Whichever opinion is accepted, what is of greater importance is that apart from the theme of Opsikion, known for its dedication to Justinian II and his policies, the theme of Thrakesion also appears to support the same emperor’s policies.⁶

Although the first mention of Thrakesian general dates from 741,⁷ the establishment of the theme can be placed several years earlier, perhaps during the first years of the reign of Leo III (716-740), towards the end of the second decade of the 8th century, as a result of his will to form an army at the ready near Constantinople and an obedient military force⁸ which would be active parallel to the army of Opsikion.

2.2. The geography of the theme of Thrakesion

The theme of Thrakesion included areas of ancient Mysia and Lydia. At its northern border with Opsikion was the valley of the Kaikos river,⁹ while to the south its border with the theme of Kibbyrrhaiotai must have been slightly to the south of Ephesus. To the east it reached the areas of Tiberiopolis, Laodicea and Colosson, i.e. it included a section of Phrygia.¹⁰ The theme’s capital must have been Ephesus, although there is no clear reference in the sources.¹¹ The Arab geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih mentions that the theme’s boundaries included four more fortified locations,¹² without mentioning their names, while of the cities recorded by Constantine Porphyrogennetos¹³ (Pergamum, Sardis, Hierapolis, Tralles, Laodicea, Chonai/Colossai) most had been impoverished at the time of the writing of the On themes, and only Smyrna and Ephesus survived as towns.

3. Relations with central goverment

The first known general of the Thrakecians, the patrikios Sisinnius contributed to the restoration of Constantine V (740-775) to the throne, after a coup by Artabasdos, but was later blinded posssibly because the emperor considered him suspicious of conspiracy and a danger to his kingship.¹⁴

During the years 743-790 Constantine V and his successors appointed trustworthy generals to the theme,¹⁵ notably Michael Lachanodrakon, the emperor’s most trusted dignitary and applier of the policy on icons: during the twenty years of his administration, Lachanodrakon imposed harsh measures against the monks.¹⁶ Also noteworthy was the theme’s general Bardanes Tourkos, who possibly assumed the generalship in around 793 and ten years later, in 803, as general of Anatolikon, headed the consipracy against the emperor Nikephoros I (802-811).¹⁷

Since then, and for most of the 9th century, especially during the reign of the Amorion dynasty (842-867), individuals of the emperor’s complete trust were appointed generals of Thrakesion, in a clear attempt to control the area.¹⁸ It is characteristic that the failed mutiny against Basil I (867-886) the Macedonian, co-emperor to Michael III (842-867), in 866, was led by the Thrakesian general Symbatios and the earl of Opsikion George Peganes.¹⁹ It is possibly that the same tactic was followed during the Macedonian dynasty but the names of particular officials are unknown, apart from one case, also uncertain, that of Nikephoros II Phokas (963-969).²⁰

4. Participation in military operations

During the reign of Leo IV (775-780), who followed a milder ecclesiastical policy, it appears that the general of Thrakesion Michael Lachanodrakon was confined to purely military duties. In 778 he was most certainly in charge of the allied Byzantine forces which advanced against the Arabs to Germanicia,²¹in 781 he headed another campaign in charge of 90.000 men according to the sources,²² while in the following years he suffered a terrible defeat at Darinon or Varinon, loosing half of his force.²³

With the passing of time, and especially after the mid 9th century, as the Arab incursions were less of a threat to the themes neighbouring Constantinople, the Thrakesian troops began to be used in campaigns in the empire’s European territories. They played an important role in the 911, 949 and 960/961 campaigns which led to the recapture of Arab-held Crete.²⁴

5. The theme of Thrakesion during the late 10th century and beyond

From the late 10th century and beyond the theme of Thrakesion is mentioned less often in sources, a sign of its gradually decreasing importance. One of the theme’s last generals, Basil II’s (976-1025) renowned general Constantine Diogenes, seems to have been appointed in 1029 as a type of unfavourable transfer, on suspicion of conspiracy.²⁵