Ephesus (Antiquity), Theatre

1. Location

The theatre of Ephesus (map no. 75) is the best-preserved ancient building of the Asia Minor metropolis, the largest theatre in Asia Minor and, at the same time, one of the largest theatres of the ancient world. It is built against the west slope of Mt Pion (Panayir Dağ) and faces to the west. It is located approximately 600 m. from the main harbour, at the end of the Arcadiane, one of the most important commercial streets of Ephesus, while the Theatre Street , with S-N orientation, begins at the north-eastern corner of the plateia (in Coressus) in front of the theatre. Thus, access to the theatre building was achieved via two of the city’s most important streets.1

2. Architectural Description

Its ground plan followed the Greek theatre type, but in later years it was converted into aRoman Asia Minor – style theatre, a usual practice in Asia Minor, where the pre-existing Hellenistic theatres received alterations to their layouts during the Roman Imperial era.

2.1. Hellenistic theatre

The construction of the theatre of Ephesus is dated most probably later than 133 BC and after the city had become the main harbour of the Province of Asia, while it is presumed that the location for the erection of the theatre building was chosen during the establishment of the new city under the name Arsinoeia by Lysimachus c. 274 BC.2 The Hellenistic theatre had an auditorium (cavea) and an orchestra in a horseshoe shape with a diameter of 24.66 m., which was surrounded by a drainage channel for the collection of rain water. The scene was a rectangular two storey building, mesuring 41.70 x 10.05 m. It was similar to the scene-buildings of the Hellenistic theatres at Priene and Assos. Its facade had seven openings (thyromata), between massive pillars which were closed with painted panels. The scene -building had a tiled roof.3

2.2. Roman theatre

In Imperial times, during the 1st century AD in particular, there was a radical renovation of the theatre in accordance to the Roman type. In its final form, which it retains to this day, the auditorium (cavea) rises approximately 30 m. above the orchestra level. It is larger than a semicircle and it is built against the natural slope, while vaulted substructures had to be constructed for supporting the side-sections of the auditorium and the retaining walls. Vaulted passages with staircases (vomitoria) led to the central entrances of the diazomata (praecinctiones) and facilitated access to the upper sections of the auditorium.4

The auditorium (cavea) was divided by two horizontal passageways (praesinctiones) into three vertical sections (maeniana). The lower section of the auditorium (ima cavea) was divided by 12 narrow staircases into 11 tiers (cunei) with 18 rows of seats,5 while the middle (media cavea) and upper section (summa cavea) had 22 tiers with about 20 rows of seats each. The total capacity of the theatre can be estimated at 24,000 spectators. The theatre of Ephesus contained prescribed seats for dignitaries, while there was a distinct differentiation of seats for different social groups and classes.6 On the upper part of the auditorium there was a stoa (porticus in summa cavea) for easy access of spectators to the upper section of the theatre.7 Inscriptions testify that a massive awning (vela)8 covered the auditorium for the protection of spectators from the intense sun or from rain.

The orchestra was semi-circular with a diameter of 33.62 m. and was covered by marble slabs. When it was later altered into an arena for amphitheatric games, the first rows of seats were removed and the orchestra perimeter wall was made higher, like a parapet, for the protection of spectators from the violent actions of the gladiators and wild beast hunters.9

The reconstruction of the scene-building took place during the reign of Domitian (around 87-92 AD according to inscriptions), a period of intense building activity for the city.10 The logeion (pulpitum) was moved towards the orchestra and was supported by a low proscaenium. These alterations blocked access from the side passageways (parodoi), so vaulted entrances were added to the scene.

The monumental two-storey stage facade (scaenae frons) of the Roman theatre was constructed in front of the Hellenistic scene-building during the Flavian dynasty (69-96 AD). The first storey had an Ionian colonnade, while the second columns of the composite order. The colonnades created projecting pavilions and curved exedrae, supported a broken entablature and crowned with round and triangular pediments). The front of the scene had openings (thyromata),11aediculae and niches, decorated with statues. These architectural elements with the intense decorative disposition accentuated the stage façade in accordance to Roman aesthetic standards. Another storey with a simple Corinthian order colonnade seems to have not belonged to the initial design but was probably added during the Severan era (193-235 AD). When the third storey was added it was decorated with a frieze bearing masks and garlands.

The theatre of Ephesus has one of the most elaborate scaenae frons of Roman theatres in Asia Minor. It is a "baroque" aedicular facade, representative of the area’s theatrical buildings, which combines Hellenistic elements and stylistic motifs with the opulence and intensely decorative quality of Roman architecture.12

3. Function

The theatre of Ephesus was used for theatrical performances, political gatherings and religious festivals. It housed theatrical and artistic performances, political meetings, religious ceremonies, musical and athletic games. During the Late Imperial period it was turned into an arena for mass spectacles such as gladiatorial contests and fights with animals.13

4. Sculptural Decoration

The theatre of Ephesus became a model for the rest of the theatres in Asia Minor regarding the configuration of its iconographical programme. It included the entire imagery of iconographic subjects, idealistic-mythological and portrait sculptures, either free-standing or in relief.

The idealized statues represent deities directly connected to the theatre (for example, Apollo and the Muses, Dionysus and his thiasos), deities with particular connections to each city (for example, Artemis-Diana for Ephesus, Aphrodite-Venus for Aphrodisias, etc) as well as gods which had their own particular importance to the lives of people such as Poseidon, Serapis, Athena, Heracles, Hermes, and Asclepius.14 Portrait sculpture, in turn, included portraits of emperors and members of the imperial family and private portraits of citizens (officials and members of the local aristocracy) who had distinguished themselves either for their beneficial activities for the city or for their virtues. These portraits served the imperial propaganda on the one hand and the political ambitions of rich local sponsors on the other. They also honoured personalities connected to earlier and contemporary history of the city, i.e. heroes, but also people connected to the theatre itself, such as poets, actors, musicians, artists, intellectuals and athletes.15

Most of these statues are housed in museums in Vienna (The Ephesus Museum and the Kunsthistorisches Museum), some were transferred to the British Museum in London while very few are in museums in Turkey (Istanbul Archaeological Museum, Selçuk Museum).16

The theatre of Ephesus is dominated by the presence of Apollo and Artemis. This is logical if one considers that Artemis is the patron deity of Ephesus.

According to the inscription of the votive offering by C. Vidius Salutaris, the theatre of Ephesus had a total of nine figures of the goddess Artemis represented as a Torch-bearer, holding a phiale. One figure was made of gold and the rest were made of silver.17 In fact, the gold statue of the goddess was accompanied by gilt and silver deers.

Apollo is represented in three depictions. One headless figure, of the Apollo Antium type, appears to have held a bow.18 The second also headless figure shows the god in the Laurel-bearer type and he must have held a phiale and a laurel branch.19 A head of Apollo Musegetes (leader of the Muses) was also found,20 which in all likelihood was connected to the figure of one of the Muses. The figure of a seated Muse appears in the restoration of part of the scene.

Dionysus and his thiasos also formed an important part of the iconographical programme of the theatre of Ephesus. This is due to the god Dionysus’ connection with the creation of theatre on the one hand, and on the other with the myth of the foundation of Ephesus itself. In the theatre he is depicted in three representations: a headless torso in the Apollo Lycius type, and two heads bearing an ivy wreath which date from the reign of Hadrian.21 The torso of a Satyr has also been identified.22

The Dionysian world is frequently repeated in the theatre’s iconographic programme. Fragments of 4 pillars with figures in high relief have been found. Initially they were identified as three figures of Amazons and the figure of a Satyr, and it was suggested that they formed the supports of the logeion (pulpitum), together with other similar figures, which have not survived. Recently, however, it has been considered that they were only two pairs of figures.23 According to this hypothesis, one pair is identified as the personification of Ephesus and an Amazon, which functioned as symbols of the town and the myth of its foundation, while the other two figures have been identified with Dionysus and Satyr, as symbols of the theatre.24

On the podium of the second storey of the scene's façade a relief frieze depicting Cupids in a hunting scene was placed. The Cupidswere depicted hunting wild animals, such as lions, boars, deer, roe deer, but also hares, goats and bulls. On some of the relief plaques the scenery, rocks, trees, even a rocky outcrop with a temple are implied. Although this frieze follows Hellenistic types, stylistically it belongs to the Trajan-Hadrian era. These representations consist a clear reference and allusion to the games and fights which took place in Roman theatres.

Another group of relief plaques decorated with vine tendrils and reclining Satyrs laying on panther skins, found in the theatre area, were thought to form part of the frieze.

Among the rest of the idealized statues it is worth mentioning the figures of Aphrodite and Athena, Poseidon in the Lateranus type, Heracles, Nemesis in the Fortuna type, the statuette of the enthroned Serapis (2nd century AD), and also the statue of the personification of the Demos of Ephesus.25 The majority date from the Antonine years (138-192 AD). A male figure in the type of Hermes Richelieu and a Diadoumenos torso were also found in the area. During the Imperial age these types were also used for portrait sculpture.26

Of particular importance is the finding of a votive inscription according to which in 104 AD the rich citizen C. Vibius Salutaris assigned to his native town, Ephesus, a total of 31 statues made of precious metals.27 The inscription was carved on the wall of the southern retaining wall of the theatre and was bilingual (Greek and Latin). The statues were transported from the Artemision and erected in the theatre for certain occasions, during the Sebasteia and Great Artemisia celebrations.28 The group included the Personifications of the City, the Demos, the Six Tribes, the Senate, the Boule, the Gerousia (council of elders), the Ephebes (youth association), etc.,29 as well as portraits of the emperor Trajan and his wife Plotina. The figures were positioned in groups of three on pedestals while each group included a torch-bearing Artemis with a phiale.30

Of the rest of the sculptural decoration of the stage façade survive the bases of the statues of the towns of Carthage, Nicaea of Kilbianoi, the personifications of the Demos of Cnidus and Cos.31 These statues were commissioned on occasion of the celebrations for the third neokoria of Ephesus in 211 AD.

5. Later years

The building suffered considerable damage from the destructive earthquakes which struck the town in 262 and mainly in 359 and 366 AD. During the Byzantine era (in the 8th century AD), although the theatre was incorporated into the city’s fortification, as happened to the theatres of Miletus and Aphrodisias, never ceased to be used.32

6. History of archaeological research and state of preservation

Architectural remains of the theatre’s scene were discovered in 1860 by J.T. Wood.33 More systematic excavations took place in the period 1897-1900 by the Austrian Archaeological Institute under the direction of R. Heberdey. Detailed publication of the monument took place in 1912 by the Austrians R. Heberdey, G. Niemann and W. Wilberg, accompanied by reconstruction drawings.34 In the 1970s, reconstructive work took place, while a research programme for the study and protection of the theatre began in 1993 by Stefan Karwiese and I. Ataç.35 This programme revealed important details of the theatre’s architecture and contributed to the building’s restoration. Today, the theatre, due to its location, offers visitors a unique view of the city and the harbour, while due to its good preservation it is used for theatrical performances and music events.36

1. Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung” in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 429-430.

2. Early research referred to two Hellenistic building phases of the theatre. The earlier was dated during the 1st half of the 3rd century BC., so it was believed that the theatre’s erection was planned during the city’s foundation by Lysimachus, while the second building phase was placed in the end of the 2nd century BC.

3. Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung” in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 429-435; Ciancio Rossetto, P. – Pisani Sartorio, G. (ed.), Teatri Greci e Romani, alle Origini del Linguaggio rappresentato III (1994/5/6), p. 495-496; Scherrer, P. (ed.), Ephesus. The New Guide (2000), p. 158-160.

4. For the construction of the retaining walls and the vaulted passages, see Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung” in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 431.

5. The lower section of the auditorium (ima cavea) dates from the Hellenistic period.

6. Inscriptions testify the existence of reserved seats for members of the local elite, of the Boule, the Gerousia (council of elders), the priests, the ephebes, and others. The designation of seats concerned mainly the lower section of the auditorium. See Kolb, F., “Die Sitzordnung von Volksversammlung und Theaterpublikum im kaiserzeitlichen Ephesos”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 101-105; Scherrer, P. (ed.), Ephesus. The New Guide (2000), p. 160.

7. This is where the epigraphically recorded “Nemesion”, a temple dedicated to Nemesis, protector goddess of games, could have been located. See Merkelbach, R. – Nollé, J. – Engelmann, H. – Iplikçioğlu, B. – Knibbe, D., Die Inschriften fon Ephesos VI (IK 16, Bonn 1980), p. 28, no. 2042; Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung” in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 432.

8. On inscriptions from the theatre it is mentioned as the theatre’s “petasos”. See Merkelbach, R. – Nollé, J. – Engelmann, H. – Iplikçioğlu, B. – Knibbe, D., Die Inschriften fon Ephesos VI (IK 16, Bonn 1980), p. 25-28, no. 2039, 2040, 2041. It has been disputed that this awning covered the entire auditorium (cavea). See Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung” in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 432.

9. Heberdey, R. – Niemann, G. – Wilberg, W., Das Theater in Ephesos. Forschungen in Ephesos 2 (Wien 1912); Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung” in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 429-435; Ciancio Rossetto, P. – Pisani Sartorio, G. (ed.), Teatri Greci e Romani, alle Origini del Linguaggio rappresentato III (1994/5/6), p. 495-496; Scherrer, P. (ed.), Ephesus. The New Guide (2000), p. 158-160.

10. Inscription from the architrave of the first storey of the scene see Merkelbach, R. – Nollé, J., Die Inschriften von Ephesos VI, Nr. 2001-2958 (Bonn 1980), no. 2034, p. 22.

11. On the first floor of the scene were five openings for communication between the scene and the logeion (pulpitum), where the actors played. The size of the doorways  decreased towards sides. On the second storey, semi-circular niches  were placed instead of the doors.

12. For the architecture and decoration of the theatre of Ephesus see Heberdey, R. – Niemann, G. – Wilberg, W., Das Theater in Ephesos. Forschungen in Ephesos 2 (Wien 1912); Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung” in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 429-435; Lyttelton, M., Baroque Architecture in Classical Antiquity (London 1974), p. 201-202. Hormann, H., “Die romische Buhnenfront zu Ephesos”, JdI 38-39 (1923-1924), p. 275-345; De Bernardi Ferrero, D., Teatri classici in Asia Minore 3 (Roma 1970), p. 45-66.

13. Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung” in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 430; Kolb, F., “Die Sitzordnung von Volksversammlung und Theaterpublikum im kaiserzeitlichen Ephesos”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 101-105.

14. Bejor, G., Hierapolis, Scavi e ricerche, III. Le statue (Roma 1991), p. 18.

15. Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpurenausstattung kaizereitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis’, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 101-102, 109, 113.

16. For the sculptural decoration of the theatre, see Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpurenausstattung kaizereitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis’, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 99-128. Hörmann, H., “Die römische Bühnenfront zu Ephesos”, JdI 38-39 (1923-1924), p. 275-345; Schwingenstein, C., Die Figurenausstattung des griechischen Theatergebäudes (Münchener Archaologische Studien 8, München 1977), p. 24, 38, 46, 48, 101, 107, 119-122, 124-125; Aurenhammer, M., Die Skulpturen von Ephesos, Idealplastik I. Forschungen in Ephesos X/1 (Wien 1990).

17. Wankel, H. (ed.), Die Inschriften von Ephesos, Ia. (IK 11.1, Bonn 1979), p. 167-222, no. 27 line. 148, line. 159 (C.V. Salutaris offering); Heberdey, R. – Niemann, G. – Wilberg, W., Das Theater in Ephesos. Forschungen in Ephesos 2 (Wien 1912), p. 147-150, no. 28-29; Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 126 (E 52).

18. Vienna, Ephesus Museum, cat. no. I 823. Dates from the Early Imperial age. Eichler, F., Führer durch die Antikensammlung (1926), p. 33; Oberleitner, W., et al., Funde aus Ephesos und Samothrake. Kat. Der Antikensammlung Wien II (1978), p. 106, no. 136; Aurenhammer, M., Die Skulpturen von Ephesos, Idealplastik I. Forschungen in Ephesos X/1 (Wien 1990), p. 35, no. 12, pl. 10, 11; Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 126 (E 35).

19. Istanbul Arch. Museum (since 1911), no. 2455, Antonine dynasty. Pochmarski, E., Das Bild des Dionysos in der Rundplastik der Klassischen Zeit Griechenlands (1974), p. 101, no. 24D (1371); LIMC II (1984), p. 215, no. 261, see entry “Apollon” (W. Lambrinudakis), 324 (G. Kokkorou-Alewras); Aurenhammer, M., Die Skulpturen von Ephesos, Idealplastik I. Forschungen in Ephesos X/1 (Wien 1990), p. 40, no. 15, fig. 15; Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 126 (E 37).

20. Vienna, Ephesus Museum, cat. no. I 876. Dates from the Early Imperial age. Eichler, F., Fürer durch die Antikensammlung (1926), p. 33; Oberleitner, W., et al., Funde aus Ephesos und Samothrake. Kat. Der Antikensammlung Wien II (1978), p. 106, no. 137, fig. 85; LIMC II (1984), p. 255, no. 571, see entry“Apollon” (W. Lambrinudakis); Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 126 (E 36).

21. Oberleitner, W., et al., Funde aus Ephesos und Samothrake. Kat. Der Antikensammlung Wien II (1978), p. 109, no. 1 44 (torso, Vienna, Ephesus Museum, no. I 813); Aurenhammer, M., Die Skulpturen von Ephesos, Idealplastik I. Forschungen in Ephesos X/1 (Wien 1990), p. 58, no. 35, pl. 26a (torso, Vienna, Ephesus Museum, numb. I 813), p. 57 ff, no. 34, pl. 25a-c (head, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, no. I 827), p. 35 ff, no. 32, pl. 23a-c (head, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, numb. I 877); Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 126 (E38 – torso, Vienna, Ephesus Museum, numb. I 813), p. 126 (E 39 – head, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, no. I 827), p. 126 (E 40 – head, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, no. I 877).

22. London, British Museum, no. 1244. Aurenhammer, M., Die Skulpturen von Ephesos, Idealplastik I. Forschungen in Ephesos X/1 (Wien 1990), p. 73, no. 53, pl. 36a-b; Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 126 (E 41).

23. Hartswick, K. J., “The so-called Ephesos Amazon. A new identification”, JdI 101, (1986), p. 127-136.

24. The female figures repeat the Sosicles/Capitonile Amazon type. The figures reflect the influence of Pergamum. See Eichler, F., “Eine neue Amazone und andere Skulpturen aus dem Theater von Ephesos”, Öjh 43, (1956-1958), p. 7-18; Oberleitner, W., et al., Funde aus Ephesos und Samothrake. Kat. Der Antikensammlung Wien II (1978), p. 64.

25. Aphrodite: 1) Vienna, Ephesus Museum, no. I 874. 2) London, British Museum, no. 1245. 3) Istanbul Arch. Museum, no. 114. Athena: 1) London, British Museum, no. 1241, 2) Selçuk, Museum, no. 1652. Poseidon: Vienna, Ephesus Museum, no. I 836 (head) and London, British Museum, no. 1242(body). See LIMC VII (1994), p. 453, no. 34a, see entry “Poseidon” (E. Simon); Gschwantler, K., “Die Poseidonstattuette vom Typus Lateran aus Ephesos”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos, Akten des Symposions, Wien 1995 (1999), p. 545-548, fig. 128-131. Hercules: Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, numb. I 878. See Aurenhammer, M., Die Skulpturen von Ephesos, Idealplastik I. Forschungen in Ephesos X/1 (Wien 1990), p. 118, no. 98, fig. 69a-b. Nemesis: Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, no. I 931, see LIMC VI (1992), p. 750 no. 181, in entry “Nemesis” (P. Karanastassi). Also, Kabus-Jahn, R., Studien zu Frauen figuren des4. Jhs. v. Chr. (1962), p. 38, n. 46. Serapis: Vienna, Ephesus Museum, no. I 832. See Aurenhammer, M., Die Skulpturen von Ephesos, Idealplastik I. Forschungen in Ephesos X/1 (Wien 1990), p. 97-99, no. 79, fig. 56a-b. Ephesus Demos: Istanbul Arch. Museum, no. 2454. See Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 126-127 (E 43-E 60).

26. Ridgway, B. S., Classical Sculpture, Catalogue of Classical Collection, Rhode Island School of Design (1972), 46, no. c) 14 (Richelieu torso). Aurenhammer, M., Die Skulpturen von Ephesos, Idealplastik I. Forschungen in Ephesos X/1 (Wien 1990), p. 73, no. 161, pl. 124a-b (Richelieu torso), p. 185, no. 152, pl. 118b (Diadoumenos). Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 126 (E 42, E 45).

27. Wankel, H. (ed.), Die Inschriften von Ephesos Ia. (IK 11.1, Bonn 1979), p. 167-222, no. 27 (C. V. Salutaris offering).

28. Scherrer, P. (ed.), Ephesus. The New Guide (2000), p. 158-160. Mainly see Kolb, F., “Die Sitzordnung von Volksversammlung und Theaterpublikum im kaiserzeitlichen Ephesos”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos. Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 101-105.

29. Wankel, H. (ed.), Die Inschriften von Ephesos Ia. (IK 11.1, Bonn 1979), p. 223-240, no. 28-35.

30. There are a total of 9 figures of Artemis. The main text mentions 29 statues and 2 more figures are referred to in the supplementary inscription. Therefore the initial 9 pedestals were increased to 11 of which 8 survive.

31. Merkelbach, R. – Nollé, J. – Engelmann, H. – Iplikçioğlu, B. – Knibbe, D., Die Inschriften fon Ephesos VI (IK 16, Bonn 1980), p. 38-42, no. 2053-2056; Can Özren, A., “Die Skulpturenausstattung kaizerzeitlicher Theater in der Provinz Asia, am Beispiel der Theater in Aphrodisias, Ephesos und Hierapolis”, Thetis 3 (1996), p. 127 (E 61-64).

32. Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos. Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 429-435; Scherrer, P. (ed.), Ephesus. The New Guide (2000), p. 158-160.

33. Wood, J. T., Discoveries at Ephesos (London 1877), p. 68-70.

34. Heberdey, R. – Niemann, G. – Wilberg, W., Das Theater in Ephesos. Forschungen in Ephesos 2 (Wien 1912).

35. Ataç, I., “Das antike Theater von Ephesos, Grundlagen des Projektes Raumforschung und Restaurierung”, in Friesinger, H. – Krinzinger, F. (ed.), 100 Jahre Österreichische Forschungen in Ephesos. Akten des Symposions Wien 1995 (Wien 1999), p. 429-435.

36. Wiplinger, G. – Wlach, G., Ephesus. 100 Years of Austrian Research (Vienna 1996), p. 163