1. Anthropography

The ancient site of Oenoanda is located on the northern borders of Lycia, in the mountainous region of Cabalitis, 32 km to the W-NW of Elmali. The city was built on the secluded side of a hill near the modern village of Incealiler, while the nearest city is Urludja. Below Oenoanda runs the modern highway leading from Fethiye (ancient Telmessus) to Korkuteli and crossing the Xanthos (Koca) River. Three kilometres to the NW of Oenoanda lies the ancient city of Termessus Minor.¹

Oenoanda was built on fertile land and on a strategic site, thus controlling the mountainous passages and the accessible road arteries. The site of the ancient settlement was located in the mid-19^th century² and was identified with Oenoanda, the city reported by ancient travellers and historians,³ through inscriptions.⁴

Nothing is known about the exact time the ancient city was founded, for there is little and ambiguous historical evidence from before the 1^st century BC. However, the city is evidenced by inscriptions from at least the 3^rd century BC.⁵ Historical information about Oenoanda is gained from both the Greek and the Roman literature as well as from Anatolian sources, each one reporting the tradition of the region from their point of view. The Oenoandans, who inhabited the mountainous and unapproachable area of Cabali, as well as the rest of the Lycians are believed to have had different origins.⁶

According to Strabo, the Oenoandans were Solymoi⁷ in origin. The Solymoi were aboriginals who lived in southwestern Asia Minor. In the Iliad they are reported to have been hostile towards the inhabitants of Lycia and fought Bellerophon, the representative of the King of Lycia.⁸ The Solymoi were later called Milyai⁹ and ruled the land of Lycia until Sarpedon together with the Termilians,colonists from Crete, made them withdraw in the mountainous region of Cabalitis.¹⁰

2. Historical Background

The city of Oenoanda is reported by Strabo, Pliny and Stephanos Byzantios.¹¹ Significant historical information is gleaned by the numerous inscriptions found on the ancient site, most of which date from the Early Imperial period (43 BC-69 AD). They are official administrative texts, honorary inscriptions of public and private character and gravel stelai from the Early Imperial years as well as fragments from the large inscription of the Epicurean philosopher Diogenes.¹² The earliest known inscription dates from the 3^rd century BC, being the first written source about the habitation of the city.¹³ There is little historical information about the city concerning the period before the 1^st century BC, mainly gained from the study of archaeological findings from the site and the historical framework of the wider district of Lycia.

Although in the 6^th century BC the inhabitants of Lycia were subjugated to the Persians, they maintained their identity and their local potentates. Towards the end of the Persian domination over Asia Minor, the district of Lycia was incorporated into the territory of Mausolus, the satrap of Caria. Local dynasties were eliminated and most cities became self-governing. In 334 BC Alexander the Great occupied Asia Minor. After he died, Lycia was ceded to Antigonus I Monophtalmos (One-Eyed) (382-301 BC) and then to the Ptolemies of Egypt, remaining under their occupation for the longest part of the 3^rd century BC. From then on, the Greek language replaced the local language and the inhabitants of Lycia became part of the Greek world.

In the 3^rd century BC (about 225-175 BC) the Termessians, claiming that they shared a common ancestor with the Oenoandans, founded the colony of Termessus Minor on the outskirts of Oenoanda.¹⁴ The city was built on the bank of the Xanthos River, 3 km to the NW of Oenoanda. The social life and organisation of Termessus Minor and Oenoanda are evidenced on honorary inscriptions found scattered around the city, since dedications from both cities were preserved in Oenoanda. As a result, the two cities seem to have had close cultural relations and were united in the Roman years, although they were under different administrations and appeared on inscriptions as two separate demoi, the Oenoandans and the Termessians.¹⁵

In 197 BC the cities of Lycia were occupied by Antiochus III the Great of Syria (223-187 BC) before ceded to the Romans. The only exceptions were the port of Telmessus and, possibly, Oenoanda, which was incorporated into the territory of Eumenes II Soter (197-159 BC) of Pergamon, shortly after the Peace of Apamea (188 BC). The archaeological evidence supports that Oenoanda belonged to the kingdom of Pergamon after 188 BC. The city’s fortification wall, dating from 200 to 150 BC, is quite similar to that of Pergamon and is considered part of the chain of fortifications Pergamon made all over the western Asia Minor from Attaleia of Pamphylia to Termessus of Caria.¹⁶

The only known coin from Oenoanda dates from the same period. It is an independent Attic issue, representing the head of Zeus on the obverse and the inscription ‘of the Oenoandans’on the reverse, probably dating from the period when the city was under the control of the kingdom of Pergamon and may have been an autonomous administration.¹⁷

Perhaps at the end of the kingdom of Pergamon (after 133 BC) Oenoanda became a member of the Tetrapolis under Cibyra, the other members being Boubon and Balboura. The confederation was disbanded by the Roman general Licinius Murena around 81 BC, when he subjugated Cibyra at the end of Mithradatic War I and, as a result, Oenoanda and the other members of the Tetrapolis came under the Koinon of Lycia.¹⁸ In 42 BC Oenoanda betrayed the Koinon and allied with Brutus during the siege of Xanthos, thus being expelled as punishment. It was finally incorporated into the expanded province of Lycia and Pamphylia in the 1^st century AD. There is little information about the history of the city in the Imperial period, including excerpts from written sources and honorary inscriptions.¹⁹

3. The Koinon of Lycia

The political organisation of the Koinon, which governed Lycia from 169 BC, was based on proportional representation. According to Strabo,²⁰ the cities participating in the Koinon were eligible to vote during the assembly of the confederation in proportion to their population: 3 votes the largest ones, 2 the medium ones and 1 vote the small ones. As for the total number of cities, Strabo mentions only 23 cities; however, the number must have been much higher as groups of smaller cities must have been sharing the same vote.²¹ After Vespasian (69-79) reorganised the province, the Koinon of Lycia lost its independence, although it remained partly self-governing and its members continued to prosper.

A lot of names appearing on the inscriptions of Oenoanda are related to subsidies. Some wealthy citizens managed through donations and public services to rise socially and have titles, such as the title of "Lyciarch" or the "Archiereus" (chief-priest) of the Augusti. Those country aristocrats often managed to acquire the Roman citizenship. The most known of them was the rich Opromaos from Rhodiapolis, who donated 500,000 denarii between 140 and 143, intended for restorations following an earthquake that struck 28 Lycian cities. Among the benefited cities was Oenoanda, which accepted a generous offer of 10,000 denarii for the building of baths. A special donator from Oenoanda was Licinius Longus, who made generous offers to the Lycian cities and offered public shows.²²

4. Economy

Until the second half of the 6^th century BC Lycia was isolated from the rest of the districts. Even when the Lycian coasts drew the attention of the Persians and then the Greeks for strategic and commercial reasons the inland remained isolated.²³ The foreign relations of the Oenoandans did not extend beyond Lycia. As mentioned above, there was only one coinage of the city, minted in a period of autonomy, in the 2^nd century BC.²⁴ An inscription from the Imperial years reports a transaction of the city concerning the building of an arena.²⁵ It is worth mentioning that ancient writers make mention of the cedars of the region, without commenting on the issue of trade, though.²⁶

5. Religion

The deities worshipped in Oenoanda and in the wider district of Lycia are descended from Bronze Age Anatolia. However, from the 5^th century BC on, the local and Greek deities started to fuse. Plutarch mentions that the Solymoi worshipped Kronos. However, no inscriptions have been found certifying his evidence.²⁷

The deities worshipped in Oenoanda became known through inscriptions and coins. Zeus is the God Hypsistos (Highest), while Apollo, Asclepius, Leto, Mater Dindymene, Helios, Selene and all chthonic deities are reported as well. More inscriptions reporting the Epikooi Gods, the Megaloi Theoi (Great gods) and the Dioskuroi were found near Oenoanda.²⁸ The sanctuary of Leto is possibly on the northwestern side of the acropolis. Besides, the worship of the goddess had its ancient origins in the Anatolian religion, while in Oenoanda she was worshipped at least from the 3^rd century BC.²⁹

6. Culture

The 2^nd century AD was described as a golden age of peace and spiritual regeneration, when the Epicurean philosophy bloomed and was followed by large communities, especially in Asia Minor. This is evidenced by texts of the philosopher Diogenes of Oenoanda. The detailed inscription of the philosopher (about 25,000 words) was carved circa 120 AD on a wall, in a public place of the city so as to be visible by the people. Only the one third of the inscription has been restored so far. It is a text of unique historical importance, which confirms the second period the Epicurean philosophy bloomed in the 2^nd century AD, in a remote region of the Greek-Roman world. Most excerpts come from the two major works of the philosopher, Ethics and Physics.³⁰

7. Buildings

The acropolis of Oenoanda was fortified and had large water tanks. Its public buildings were made on subsequent terraces directed to the south. The Greek theatre, built on a natural slope, was to the north, at the foot of the hill. The cavea date from the Hellenistic years (2^nd century BC), while the skene was constructed in the second half of the 1^st century AD.³¹ Around 200 to 150 BC a wall of polygonal masonry, 10 metres in maximum preserved height, was built in the southern part of the city. The wall comprised pentagon and circular towers, two of which have been preserved, while the steep outskirts of the city offered additional security.³²

There are important architectural remains of the Agora, which dates from the Imperial years.³³ A paved area was found to the southeast of the theatre and, according to the prevailing opinion, the inscription of the philosopher Diogenes was laid there.³⁴ A large number of statue pedestals were found there as well. The Nymphaeum must have been to the east of the Agora complex, while the remains of a Doric temple, possibly dedicated to Emperor Augustus (31 BC-14 AD) were found near the Agora. Among the rest of public buildings are the remains of two thermae dating from the Imperial years and located to the south of the theatre as well as the remains of an aqueduct crossing the southern part of the city.³⁵

In Late Roman years, in a period of insecurity (second half of the 3^rd century AD), a new fortification wall was built with material from pre-existing buildings. Necropoleis with sarcophagi were discovered in various positions outside the wall, while rock cut temple tombs on the rocky western side of the acropolis were also found. The remains of the marble mausoleum of Licinnia Flavilla, dating from the 2^nd century AD, are to the south, outside the walls, while a long genealogical inscription concerning a notable family of the city was also discovered there.³⁶