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Cults in the Black Sea

Συγγραφή : Gourova Natalia (12/9/2007)
Μετάφραση : Velentzas Georgios

Για παραπομπή: Gourova Natalia, "Cults in the Black Sea",
Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Εύξεινος Πόντος
URL: <http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?id=11308>
Λατρείες στον Εύξεινο Πόντο (1/12/2011 v.1) Cults in the Black Sea (8/7/2011 v.1) 
 

1. Setting

The cults of the Black Sea spread over four geographical areas on the coasts of the Black Sea. The first area includes the cults of the northern coast, ancient Scythia, which was centred around the Berezan Island, the cities of Olbia, Tyras and Chersonesus Taurica as well as the state of the Cimmerian Bosporus. The second area includes the western coasts of the Black Sea, namely the region of Thrace, which was centred around the cities of Histros, Odessa, Callatis, Mesembria, Apollonia, Dionysopolis and Tomis. The third area encompasses the cults of the Asia Minor colonies of the southern coast and particularly Heraclea, Teos, Amastris, Sinope, Cerasous, Trapezus and the cities of Amisus and Kotyora. The last area comprises the cults of the cities of ancient Colchis, Phasis, Dioscurias and Pityous, on the eastern coasts of the Black Sea.

2. Apollo

Apollo’s cult was of primary importance for all the Black Sea colonies. Apollo Iatros, the patron of the Milesian colonization, was worshipped from the very first moment the colonies were founded in the Black Sea, particularly in the cities of the northern and western coasts, around the Berezan Island, Olbia, Panticapaeum, Histros and Apollonia.1

In Olbia, where he was worshipped as Iatros and Delphinian, his was the main civil cult. The first Ionian temple dedicated to Apollo Iatros in Olbia is dated to the third quarter of the 6th c. BC, while the next one to the end of the same century. Similarly, the earliest temple of Delphinian Apollo appeared in the mid-5th c. BC.2 The cult and the sanctuaries of Apollo in Olbia must have declined towards the end of the Hellenistic era, while they disappeared in the early Christian centuries, when none of the god’s names was written on inscriptions.

In the Cimmerian Bosporus Apollo was originally worshipped along with the other deities. The only exception was Panticapaeum, where his cult became of primary importance right from the beginning, as evidenced by the existence of a monumental complex unmatched to anything else all over the northern Black Sea, the tholos of Panticapaeum, dated to the late 6th-early 5th c. BC. It is there that the earliest votive inscription from the Bosporus dedicated to Apollo Iatros was found.3

Inspired by the cult of Apollo Iatros, the cities of the Bosporus formed a league under the rule of the Archaeanaktids in the second quarter of the 5th c. BC. Towards the mid-5th c. BC, a monumental temple of Apollo was built in Panticapaeum4 as the central temple of the league. A locally produced relief from Panticapaeum, dated to 475-450 BC and depicting the god as god-ruler, probably belongs to the temple’s decor.

After the formation of a state by the Spartocid dynasty, Apollo’s cult became the cult of the state. The key role of the cult in the Cimmerian Bosporus is shown by the fact that the Spartocids served as priests at Apollo’s temple. An important element of the Spartocid policy was the introduction of Apollo’s cult into the cities annexed to their state, where they built or reconstructed the god’s sanctuaries.5 The cult started to decline in the Hellenistic period and disappeared in the early Roman years.

In Chersonesus, the cult of Apollo held an important position in the Hellenistic period, when the city promoted its relations with Delos and Delphi. It is worth mentioning that Delphi granted Chersonesus the privilege of promanteia (prior right of consultation) in the 2nd c. BC.6 It was possibly in that period that the god’s sanctuary was founded in the city, while the domestic cult of the Apollonian trinity also appears to have been widespread.7 Apollo’s cult continued in Chersonesus in the Roman years as well. In the 1st c. BC the god was represented on coins minted by Chersonesus, while the number of names attributed to Apollo increased.8

Another important centre of Apollo’s cult was Histros. On a votive inscription of the second quarter of the 5th c. BC from Olbia, Apollo Iatros is reported as ruler of Histros.9 In the acropolis of the city, as it happened in Olbia, there were two shrines dedicated to the god, the oldest of which was dedicated to Apollo Iatros.10

In Callatis, which was possibly founded after a Delphic oracle,11 Apollo was worshipped mainly as Pythian,12 as it happened in other Megarian cities. His temple, where the archives of the city were kept, played a major role in the life city's life.

Pythian Apollo was also worshipped in Mesembria,13 where two temples of the god have been found, one in the harbour and a second one in the city agora.14 As evidenced by inscriptions, the official resolutions of the boule and the demos were displayed at Apollo’s temple.15

In Apollonia Pontica, named after the god, the cult of Apollo held a central position. A significant temple of the god16 was built when the city was founded, including a colossal statue created by the Athenian sculptor Calamides.17 Apollo Iatros is reported as the main civil deity in three inscriptions of Apollonia, while representations of the god are found on coins of the city issued between the 4th c. BC and the 1st c. AD.18

Apollo was also worshipped in Odessa, as proven by 5th c. BC epigraphic evidence.19 The city had a temple of Delphinian Apollo,20 where the head of a god’s statue was found.21

In Tomis, as indicated by early coins, Apollo was the main civil deity as well. The eponymous archon of the city held the title of the priest, as it exactly happened in Miletus.22

In Phasis, Apollo’s temple is dated to the late 6th or the 5th c. BC. His cult played a key role judging from the phrase reading “Απόλλωνος Ήγεμόνος είμ τõμ Φάσι”, on a silver phiale of the late 5th-early 4th c. BC found in the area of Kuban.23 Amisos, where figurines depicting the god were found, was clearly influenced by Miletus. A temple of Apollo of Didyma existed in the city in the 1st c. BC.24

3. Artemis

Some factors that contributed to the spreading of Artemis’ cult to the Black Sea cities, apart from its usual connection with Apollo, were the mythological traditions related to the incorporation of the new territories into the ancient Greek world, the relations between the colonies and both their metropolises and other Greek cities of the Mediterranean Basin as well as local conditions.

On Berezan Island and in Olbia Artemis is found as Brauronia.25 In Olbia, where she is also found as Pythian, Ephesian, Delphinian and Agrotera (huntress), her cult was not particularly popular, at least until the Hellenistic era.26 According to inscriptions, a sanctuary of the goddess existed there in the 2nd c. BC,27 while in the same period she was depicted on city coins.28

In the Cimmerian Bosporus, Artemis appears in Panticapaeum as Ephesian in the third quarter of the 6th c. BC.29 In the 4th c. BC, sanctuaries of the goddess existed in Hermonassa and Gorgippia.30 Broadly speaking, Artemis remained closely related to Apollo in the Cimmerian Bosporus. It is not by chance that in Phanagoria towards the mid-4th c. BC there was a temple of Artemis, the goddess of hunting, who was called Agrotera.31

In Chersonesus Taurica, Artemis was worshipped from the foundation of the city in the late 5th c. BC until the Roman years, at the same time contributing to the formation of the cult of Parthenos, the major local deity of the city.32 It is very possible that the goddess was worshipped there from the 4th c. BC onwards together with Leto and Apollo in a common sanctuary. Her name is associated with the inclusion of the month Ευκλείου in the calendar of Chersonesus,33 the Artemis-related names found in inscriptions as well as with her representations used in coins, figurines and elsewhere.34

Perhaps the cult was spread all along the Thracian coast. In Histros, the cult of Artemis was closely interwoven with the cult of Apollo, with whom, as it happens with Zeus, she is depicted on a 4th c. BC relief representation.35 The existence of a month named after her as well as representations on coins witness that the goddess was worshipped in Callatis.36 A 3rd c. BC votive inscription dedicated to Leto and her daughter was found in the city, where the goddess was called just Parthenos.37 A variety of representations of the goddess in Callatis evidences that her cult played an important role in the city.38 In Apollonia, she was worshipped as Brauronia and Pythian.39

In Odessa, Artemis is found in the 4th c. BC under the name Phosphorus (light bearer). Moreover, she was probably worshipped in a common sanctuary together with the local deity, the hero Karabasmos.40 The close relations between the goddess and Apollo’s cult become evident in the inscriptions of Dionysopolis.41

The representations of the Apollonian trinity on the coins of Phasis in Colchis are a possible indication of Artemis’ cult, which was closely related to Apollo.42 According to sources, there was a sanctuary of “Phasian Artemis” near the city of Phasisʺ.43

4. Aphrodite

The cult of Aphrodite is one of the most ancient cults in the Black Sea. Following the Asia Minor tradition and largely maintaining her aristocratic nature, the goddess was worshipped in the Black Sea mainly as Aphrodite Urania.

On Berezan Island, Aphrodite was worshipped in archaic years as Syrian Aphrodite.44 Archaeological research has recently revealed a shrine of the second half of the 6th c. BC with a small temple and an altar, allegedly dedicated to Aphrodite Urania, according to findings. The shrine and the temple operated until the early 5th c. BC. The short period of the temple’s operation is connected with the movement of the population of Olbia Island, where the cult was further spread in that period.45

In Olbia, Aphrodite was worshipped mainly as Euploia and Pontike (of the open sea). Her closed archaic temple was revealed in the area of the western shrine of the city, where numerous findings were discovered, including incised inscriptions and figurines.46

There is also limited evidence concerning Aphrodite’s cult in Tyras.47

In the Cimmerian Bosporus, particularly spread was the cult of Aphrodite Urania, the goddess-patron of colonization in the area, according to some opinion.48 The main centres of worship were on the Asian side of the Bosporus, with the earliest of them being traced in Phanagoria and Kepoi. The role Aphrodite’s cult played in the area even from early on is evidenced by its close relation with Apollo due to its aristocratic nature and its correlation with the city’s authorities.49 Not by chance did the family of the Molpoi, traditionally connected with Apollo’s cult, participate in Aphrodite’s cult at Kepoi, according to an inscription from the 6th-early 5th c. BC.50 Some researchers believe that the label “Aphrodite in Kepoi” was attributed to the goddess due to the local cult.

The most important centre of Aphrodite Urania’s cult in the Cimmerian Bosporus was the sanctuary of Apatouron, known for its springs51 and classified as an open sanctuary by researchers.52 Opinions are divided over the exact location of the sanctuary.53

In the cities of the European Bosporus Aphrodite was originally worshipped together with other deities, mainly as part of a popular religion, as evidenced by the name Pandemos (for all the people). Representations of Aphrodite Pandemos are found in figurines and clay tiles.54

When the Spartocids formed a united state, Aphrodite’s cult was upgraded in the cities of the European Bosporus. A typical example is the city of Nymphaion, where Aphrodite appears as the official partner of Apollo, the main god of the Bosporus, and possibly becomes the second in rank official civil cult after the city was annexed to the state in the early 4th c. BC. In Hellenistic years her cult also appears in Cytaea and Myrmekion.55

The Spartocids also promoted Aphrodite’s cult in the Asian Bosporus in the same period. It is only typical that in the inscriptions of the 4th c. BC Aphrodite Urania is reported as “Απατούρου μεδέουσα” (mindful of Apatouron).56 In Gorgippia, where numerous marble and clay figurines of that period come from, hers is one of the official cults of the city. At the turn of the 2nd c. AD a temple was constructed there, dedicated to Aphrodite Nauarchis (mistress of the ships).57

In the Dorian Chersonesus Taurica, Aphrodite was worshipped from the Hellenistic period until the end of Antiquity as a chthonic deity and as the goddess of love.58 Some researchers consider her cult in Chersonesus a domestic cult.59 Her cult was formalised in the second half of the 2nd-early 3rd c. AD, when the temple of the goddess was built in Chersonesus.60

In Histros, Aphrodite’s cult appeared already from archaic years.61 Once again, she was closely connected with the male civil cult of Zeus. The 6th c. BC sanctuary operated until the end of Antiquity. The temple in antis has impressive dimensions and follows the Asia Minor standards.62 Inscriptions and numerous architectural parts come from this temple, including fragments of pottery decoration.63

In Apollonia, where figurines of Aphrodite from the second half of the 5th c. BC64 as well as the foundations of her temple were discovered, the goddess was worshipped as Syrian Aphrodite, at least in Classical years, as indicated by epigraphic evidence.65

Aphrodite was worshipped together with Dionysus in Mesembria in the 1st c. AD.66 Some indications of Aphrodite’s cult are also found in Amisos, with the Roman coins minted in the city bearing representations of the goddess.67

5. Demeter and Daughter

The cult of Demeter was introduced into the Black Sea from Ionia, as indicated by the Ionian origin of most archaic clay figurines of the goddess found in the region of the Black Sea.68 The propagation of her cult is directly connected with agriculture, one of the main sources of income for the Black Sea cities. The goddess was worshipped already from archaic years both in the cities and, mainly, in the sanctuaries of the chora of each city together with other deities.

In Olbia, her cult was associated with the cult of Eleusinian deities (Demeter, Persephone‑Daughter, Triptolemus) from archaic years. The earliest figurines representing the goddess are dated to the second half of the 6th c. BC.69 Some figurines depicting swines and others in phallic shapes highlight the chthonic aspects of her cult.70 The cult reached its peak in Olbia in the 4th c. BC, when the grain trade with Athens thrived.71

In the Cimmerian Bosporus, the goddess was worshipped from archaic years until the early Roman era. At the acropolis of Panticapaeum there was possibly an archaic temple of the goddess, whose existence in Classical years is confirmed by a relief representation of a procession honouring the goddess, on a marble altar base, manufactured in the late 5th c. BC,72 and a votive inscription of the 4th c. BC.73

Another centre of worship of Demeter in the Cimmerian Bosporus was Nymphaion, where hers was originally the major civil cult. Demeter’s sanctuary of the second quarter of the 6th c. BC is the earliest in the entire Black Sea region. Τhe sanctuary was destroyed possibly because of natural causes and a new prostyle temple from mud bricks was built in the mid-6th c. BC, before it was later replaced by a third temple of the mid-5th c. BC, which was preserved until the late 3rd c. BC.74

In the cities of the Asian Bosporus, the development of Demeter’s cult in the 4th c. BC is connected with the role the grain trade played in the economy of the state. The head of the goddess enwreathed with flowers is represented on a wall painting in a tumulus of the 4th c. BC, near Phanagoria, where two priestesses of Demeter were buried.75

Sanctuaries of Demeter are mainly found in the city’s chora. In the Cimmerian Bosporus, in the settlement of Beregovoye 4, located in the Fontalovski Peninsula, recent archaeological research has revealed a rural sanctuary constructed towards the late 6th-first half of the 5th c. BC, whose operation, after a short break, continued from the 4th until the 1st c. BC.76 A later sanctuary of Demeter and Kore with a temple and altars, dated to between the 3rd c. BC and the 4th c. AD, was revealed near the settlement of General’skoye Vostocnoye.77

Demeter’s cult acquired a more official character towards the late Hellenistic period.78 The so-called “stone grave of Demeter” near Panticapaeum, known for its wall paintings depicting mythological scenes connected with the capture of Persephone by Pluto and Demeter’s head, is dated to the 1st c. AD.79

Demeter’s cult is evidenced in other cities of the Black Sea as well. Clay figurines of the goddess dated to the second half of the 5th c. BC were found in Apollonia.80 The goddess was also worshipped in Mesembria,81 where a priestess of Demeter is reported in an inscription of the 4th-3rd c. BC.82 In Callatis, as it happened in several other Megarian cities, Demeter was worshipped as Malophoros (apple bearer).83 The recently excavated sanctuary in Odessa was perhaps dedicated to Demeter.84 By all probabilities, the temple of Demeter existed in Odessa already from archaic years.85 Archaeological findings confirm Demeter’s cult in Dioscurias between the 5th and the 3rd c. BC.86

6. Athena

Generally speaking, Athena’s cult was not particularly spread in the Black Sea. Apart from Milesian traditions, the promotion of the Athenian economic and political interests in the basin of the Black Sea played an important role in the presence of the cult in the region.

Epigraphic evidence witnesses the cult on Berezan Island towards the late 6th-early 5th c. BC. In Olbia, the cult is evidenced from archaic years until the early Christian centuries. In the beginning the goddess was possibly worshipped there together with Zeus.87 From the second half of the 5th c. BC onwards, the fact that Olbia participated in the Athenian League contributed to the propagation of the cult. In that period, the goddess was represented on city coins, while an inscription evidences the existence of a priest of Athena. In the late Hellenistic period the goddess was depicted as patron, mainly in figurines and sculpted works, some of which were modeled on the statue of Athena Parthenos made by Pheidias. A marble relief depicting Athena with a spear and an aegis over the chest is dated to the 2nd c. AD. However, it is one of the very few representations of the goddess from that period.88

Unlike Olbia, Athena appears to be the major deity in Tyras and was represented on coins in the Hellenistic years.89

There is almost no information about the presence of Athena’s cult in the Cimmerian Bosporus. Throughout the period when the Bosporus cities enjoyed consolidated relations with Athens, several works of art related to Athena’s cult were created, including the Panathenean amphoras depicting Athena and found in the Cimmerian Bosporus. They were prizes of athletic games held in Athens during the Panathenaea with the participation of athletes from the Bosporus.90 Among the most famous works of art from the Cimmerian Bosporus are the gold earrings of the late 5th c. BC from the Κul-Oba tumulus depicting the head of the statue of Athena Parthenos made by Pheidias. Representations of the goddess from the 5th-4th c. BC have also been found in the tumuli of Nymphaion.91 The cult was revived only in the Hellenistic years. In the first half of the 2nd c. BC the goddess was represented on coins.92

In Chersonesus Taurica, Athena was worshipped from the 4th c. BC onwards, when the city developed its relations with Athens. The goddess is found as Athena Soteira (saviour) in an inscription from the pedestal of a 4th c. BC bronze statue.93 Although the statue, made by the Athenian sculptor Polycrates, has not survived, it must have been a monumental work whose height exceeded 5 m.94 It has also been suggested that the statue adorned the 3rd c. BC Dorian prostyle or amphiprostyle temple of Athena, whose ruins have been discovered to the northeast of the city, on the cape dominating the entrance to the harbour.95 Representations of the goddess appeared on city coins for a short period in the second quarter of the 2nd c. BC.96

Athena was also worshipped in Histros, as indicated by coin representations. Under the name Soter (saviour), the goddess possibly held an important position in Mesembria as well, where a votive inscription of the 1st c. BC was found, connected with the victory of Mesembria against the army of Burebista.97

In Odessa, Athena is found on the base of a 3rd-2nd c. BC statue under the names Pagkratios (all-powerful) and Nikephoros (victory bearer).98 Her cult was also spread in Amisos, where Athenian cleruchs were sent in the 5th c. BC. The city’s coins witness the important role of the cult in the city.99

7. Dionysus

The cult of Dionysus, mainly associated with viniculture, was spread in the region of the Black Sea particularly after the end of the Classical period and was before long incorporated in the most important civil cults thanks to the influence of philosophy.

In Olbia, Dionysus’ cult is evidenced by inscriptions of the 6th c. BC.100 Just like in Miletus, it is certain that the Lenaea and the Anthesteria were celebrated in the city, apart from the Dionysia.101 A typical feature of Dionysus’ cult in Olbia was that it was conducted inside the city. Besides, the propagation of the god’s cult is also witnessed by the variety and number of relevant god-inspired names as well as by the numerous clay figurines of Dionysus.102

The cult declined in Olbia in the early Christian centuries. Representations of Dionysus from that period are almost exclusively found on imported relief vessels, manufactured mostly in Asia Minor, which were frequently used as grave goods, thus reminding of the chthonic aspect of the Dionysian cult.103

The god’s cult was spread in Tyras already from the Hellenistic years, particularly after the city was annexed to the Roman province of Lower Mysia.104 In the same period, the chthonic cult of Dionysus Sabazius (the barley god) of possibly Thracian origin was also conducted in Tyras.105

A sanctuary of Dionysus with a 4th c. BC marble statue of the god was revealed to the south of the acropolis of Panticapaeum in the Cimmerian Bosporus; the same representation of the god is also found on 1st c. BC coins of the Bosporus. Numerous statue fragments, possibly votive objects, were also discovered in the temple. According to an opinion, near the sanctuary lied the theatre of Panticapaeum, reported by Polyaenus and Athenaeus.106 A 4th c. BC Athenian relief from Panticapaeum depicting a Silen is also connected with Dionysus’ cult.107 The propagation of the cult of Dionysus to Panticapaeum and generally to the Cimmerian Bosporus in the 4th c. BC is also related with the pivotal role Apollo’s cult played in the state and the relation between the two gods. According to a 4th c. BC inscription of Panticapaeum, Dionysus was worshipped as Areios (of Ares/Mars) in the city.108

In Nymphaion of the Cimmerian Bosporus, Dionysus was worshipped together with Apollo and Aphrodite in the 4th c. BC at the central devotional complex of the city, where a votive inscription from the epistyle of the entrance to the shrine belongs.109 The reference to the title of agonothetes in the inscription shows that games in honour of Dionysus were held in the city. The correlation of Dionysus with the two above gods is repeatedly reported by ancient writers. The cult in Nymphaion indicates the wide dissemination of the Dionysian movement, but also an effort towards its suppression through legalising the Dionysian cult, a practice originally adopted by the Delphi. At the same time, it is a sign of the forthcoming crisis for Apollo’s cult, which followed the city’s crisis.

In Chersonesus, the cult of Dionysus may be described mainly as domestic, although honours were customarily bestowed to the god during the celebration of the Dionysia. A temple of the god operated in the city until the 2nd c. AD.110 The chthonic aspect of his cult was also known in Chersonesus, particularly in the early Christian centuries.111

The cult of Dionysus played an extremely dominant role in the cities of the western Black Sea. From the 4th c. BC onwards, the god’s most important centre of worship in the Black Sea was doubtless Dionysopolis, named after him, with a renowned sanctuary possibly constructed in the Hellenistic years. According to a 3rd c. BC inscription, there was a statue of the god in the city,112 while in the 2nd c. BC the city had a devotional club dedicated to Dionysus.113 A resolution of the 1st c. BC reports that celebrations and games honouring Dionysus were held with the participation of the city’s adolescents.114

An important role was occupied by Dionysus’ cult in Mesembria, where a temple of the god stood.115 Dionysus appears on the coins of the city116 as well as in inscriptions under the names Eleuthereus (liberator) and Eucarpus (fertile).117 As witnessed by epigraphic evidence, Mesembria celebrated the Dionysia.118 It is also known that the official resolutions of the boule and the demos of Mesembria were displayed at Apollo’s temple.119

In Callatis, Dionysus’ was one of the most important civil cults.120 The cult of Dionysus Zagreus played a primary role in Apollonia and was directly connected with the development of mystic cults.121

In Histros, the Dionysian cult is evidenced by a 2nd-3rd c. AD inscription indicating that there was a temple of Dionysus Carpophorus (fruit-bearer) in the city.122 In Odessa, Dionysus was worshipped as Polycarpus (producing lots of fruit).123

The cult of Dionysus is connected with the circle of rural deities in Amisos, where the clay figurines representing Dionysus Taurus and Dionysus Botrys (grape) come from.124

8. Zeus

The cult of Zeus, of mainly Milesian origin, played a pivotal role in most Black Sea cities. On Berezan Island the cult of Zeus is confirmed by inscriptions of the 5th c. BC.125

In Olbia, his cult held an important position already from archaic years. The role of his cult is witnessed by the various names attributed to the god, the earliest of which –Soter (saviour)– appeared in the third quarter of the 6th c. BC.126 A sanctuary of the second half of the 6th c. BC dedicated to Zeus and Athena stood in the area of the eastern shrine of the city.127

In the 4th c. BC, when the city of Olbia reached its peak, the cult of Zeus Soter held a special position, as evidenced by the votive inscription of the demos of Olbian citizens, made in the last third of the 4th c. BC.128 More evidence is provided by the marble base of a statue depicting the god, created in the third quarter of the same century and bearing a list of the members of the devotional club Eurysibiades that was dedicated to Zeus Soter.129 According to some opinion, annual games in his honour were held in the city.130 The cult of Zeus Soter survived in Olbia at least until the early Christian centuries.

Towards the late 5th or the early 4th c. BC, the god was for a short period worshipped in Olbia as Zeus Eleutherios (provider of freedom).131 In Hellenistic years the god was attributed the names Basileus (king), Olympian and Polieus (city protector). In the early Christian centuries he was also found as Olbian and Ammon.132

Sporadic epigraphic evidence concerning the cult of Zeus is found in the European cities of the Cimmerian Bosporus. The earliest piece comes from Panticapaeum and is dated to the late 5th c. BC133 while, in the same period, his cult is confirmed in Nymphaion as well.134 In the late Hellenistic period, when the Milesian traditions were revived, the god is found as Genarch (head of family) in a mid-1st c. BC inscription from Panticapaeum and as Soter in a 1st c. BC inscription from Myrmekion.135 It seems that between the 1st-2nd and the 3rd c. BC Zeus and Hera were jointly worshipped in Panticapaeum.136

In Nikonion, the cult of Zeus Basileus was spread already from archaic years until at least the Classical period.137

Zeus Soter was also worshipped in Chersonesus Taurica, particularly after the Hellenistic years. Zeus is reported first among the gods in the vow the citizens of Chersonesus took in the 3rd c. BC,138 while his cult held a central position in Chersonesus in the early centuries, as evidenced by the name Hypatus (supreme) attributed to him and the 2nd c. AD fortification wall that was dedicated to the god.139

Zeus’ cult was widely spread in the cities of the western Black Sea. In Histros, where his cult played an important role already from the 6th c. BC, there was a temple of Zeus Polieus.140 In the Hellenistic years, this cult was the main civil cult of the city. In Histros, Zeus was also worshipped as Ombrios (rain bringer), while a celebration was held in his honour.141

In Callatis, the god was worshipped in the same temple with Athena, while in Hellenistic years the two gods appeared under the common name Hyperdexios (over-adroit).142 Just like in Histros, the god was worshipped in Callatis as Ombrios and was honoured during a special celebration.143

Zeus Hyperdexios was also worshipped in Mesembria, where the remains of his temple have been found.144 According to findings, there was a second temple in the city, dedicated to Zeus and Hera and dated to the 5th-3rd c. BC.145

9. Other Deities

The pantheon of the Black Sea is completed with other, less famous deities of various origins.

In Olbia, among others, there were also sanctuaries of Hermes, Boreas, the Great Mother of the Gods and the Dioscuri already from the third quarter of the 6th c. BC.146 Hermes was worshipped in Olbia as family patron, while the festival of the Hermaea was celebrated in his honour already from the archaic years. In the 2nd c. BC, when the Milesian traditions were revived, the city had a sanctuary dedicated to the god.147

The local cults of Olbia included the god of the Borysthenes River, frequently depicted on the Hellenistic coins of the city.148

Among others, the Kabeirian cult was also found in the Cimmerian Bosporus in archaic years. The sanctuary and the temple of the Kabeiroi at the acropolis of Nymphaion are dated to the second half of the 6th c. BC. Towards the late 5th c. BC, a new arched temple was built in the city, but its operation was suspended in the late 4th-early 3rd c. BC.149

Between the Hellenistic period and the years of Mithridates VI Eupator, Helius was worshipped in the Cimmerian Bosporus150 and was represented on coins of Panticapaeum and Gorgippia in the 3rd-2nd c. BC.151 There is also epigraphic evidence witnessing the cult in the early Christian centuries.152

The cult of Ares was widely conducted in the Cimmerian Bosporus in the 2nd c. AD. It was then that a temple dedicated to the god was built.153

In Chersonesus Taurica, the cult of the female local deity, known from the sources as Parthenos, played a central role. Her cult was introduced in the 4th c. BC by assimilating certain features of Artemis’ cult and relevant traditions.154 The same deity was also connected with Iphigeneia. Herodotus identifies Taurian Parthenos with Iphigeneia and associates her with human sacrifices performed by the Taurians.155

Representations of Parthenos are found on 3rd c. BC coins of Chersonesus.156 Her role as the major civil cult and patron goddess of the city is evidenced by the inscriptions of that period, mainly by the 3rd c. BC honorary resolution concerning the painter Syriskos and the resolution honouring Diophantus.157 As a matter of fact, as witnessed by epigraphic evidence, the concept of the central authority of Chersonesus was identified with or even personified as the major deity of the city already from the early Christian centuries.158

Τhe sanctuary of Parthenos in Chersonesus has not been revealed yet. A very important sanctuary of the goddess existed near Chersonesus, on Parthenion Cape.159

According to inscriptions, Helius was worshipped in Chersonesus in the Hellenistic era.160 The cult of Hermes, as the patron and saviour of the city, became particularly famous here in the 2nd c. AD, with games being held in his honour.161 In Roman years, the cult of Asclepius reached its peak in Chersonesus,162 where a 2nd c. AD temple reported by inscriptions stood.163 The local cults of Chersonesus also included the cult of the god Chersonasus.164

From the late 6th c. BC onwards Cybele,165 Asclepius166 and Poseidon Heliconius (of Helicon)167 were worshipped among other deities in Histros, while the city celebrated the Taureia in honour of Poseidon.168 A sanctuary of the Muses existed in Histros, according to a 3rd c. BC inscription.169 Demos was worshipped here in the 3rd c. BC, with his statue being displayed in the city market.170 Representations of Helius appeared on 3rd-2nd c. BC coins of Histros.171

In Mesembria as well, as indicated by inscriptions, there were numerous cults, including deities such as Asclepius, Isis, Sarapis, the Hero of Sosipolis172 and Hermes, who was considered the patron of adolescents in the 1st c. BC.173

From the late 6th c. BC onwards, Apollonia worshipped Cybele,174 Hestia,175 Poseidon Taurius176 and the local Chthonic Gaia (earth).177

In Anchialos, the inscriptions witness the possibly Thracian cult of the Nymphs.178

In Odessa, the Kabeiroi were worshipped as gods of Samothrace in the Hellenistic years, while the city archives were kept at their sanctuary.179 The Hermaea was celebrated in this city as well.180 Among the local cults of Odessa was the cult of the Great god of Odessa, later known under the name Darzalas or Derzelas, the god of panspermia (seeds everywhere), fertility and wealth, directly interwoven with the operation of the city as its patron, who also had chthonic features. Representations of the deity are found on clay figurines as well as on coins between the 4th c. BC and the 1st c. AD, while the city possibly had a temple dedicated to the god. In Roman years the festival of Darzalea was celebrated in his honour. From the 4th c. BC onwards, the Great Goddess, a co-patron of the city, started to appear sitting beside the god.181

In Tomis, apart form Hermes, whose festival is evidenced by inscriptions,182 Hestia and Poseidon Heliconius were also worshipped.183

In Phasis, the entrance to the city was adorned by a statue of Cybele, according to Arrian.184 Pompeius Mela reports that Phasis had a temple and a boscage dedicated to Phrixus.185

The pantheon of Amisos is quite extensive as well, with the 4th-1st c. BC coins of the Roman period representing various deities and heroes, including Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Asclepius, Athena, Demeter, Dionysus, Hermes, Nike and Zeus, Tyche, Perseus and Heracles.186 In Roman years, Amisos worshipped Poseidon, too.187

Sinope, as indicated by representations on coins, worshipped the nymph (or amazon) Sinope, the mythical founder of the city.188Autolycus and Phlogius were also worshipped here. Autolycus’ sanctuary included an oracle and his statue, made in the 4th c. BC by the sculptor Στεννίδη.189 The two cults were probably maintained even after the early Christian centuries.190 It is also possible that the founders of Sinope were worshipped as local heroes and saviours.191

One of the most important cults of the city between the 3rd c. BC and the early Christian centuries was the cult of Poseidon, as indicated by coins. Helius was worshipped in Sinope in Hellenistic years, as evidenced by the representations of his head on city coins minted in the 3rd-2nd c. BC.192

10. Cults of Heroes

One of the typical features of the Black Sea pantheon is the cults of heroes in the cities of the region. The most widespread cult was that of Achilles, who was worshipped between the 6th c. BC and the 4th c. AD as an extremely important hero and god with beneficent and therapeutic properties, and as the patron of seafaring and sea routes.193 His cult became famous mainly in the state of Olbia and on the western coasts of the Black Sea.

His earliest sanctuary is the open sanctuary of the 6th-first half of the 5th c. BC on cape Baykuş, which was possibly the most important of all in the wider region, including Berezan Island and Olbia.194

Among the most important sanctuaries of Achilles were that on Leuke Island, with a sacred thicket, a renowned oracle, an infirmary, altars and treasures,195 and the sanctuary at Achilleiodromos on a finger of land called Tendrovskaya Kosa. Both sanctuaries were originally under the control of Olbia, whose devotional festivals and horse riding games were connected with Achilles’ cult.

The sanctuary on Leuke Island was founded in archaic years. Recent archaeological research dates Achilles’ temple in Leuke to the mid-second half of the 6th c. BC.196 According to an opinion, the Ionian, possibly in antis, temple of Achilles in Leuke was contemporary with the temple of Apollo Iatros in Olbia and was built with Milesian contribution.197

A new temple was constructed on the site of the earlier one in the 4th c. BC, a fact connected with the heyday of Olbia.198 The participation of Olbia in the erection of the temple is also confirmed by inscriptions.199 The numerous coins from various centres found there indicate both the prosperity of the sanctuary and the role it played in the economy of the wider region. The hero’s sanctuary and oracle in Leuke started to decline in the mid-1st c. AD.200 The new climax, connected with the cult of Achilles as Pontarches (lord and master of the Pontic/Black Sea), covers the 2nd and the 3rd c. AD, when the sanctuary came under the control of the city of Tomis.

In his second sanctuary, on the northern edge of Tendrovskaya Kosa, Achilles was worshipped mainly as a herο and was associated with athletic games (certamen gymnicum). The sanctuary, among others, is reported by Euripides in Iphigeneia Taurica.201

The third centre of worship dedicated to Achilles was possibly in the city of Achilleion of the Asian Bosporus, on the entrance to the Maeotian (Azov) Sea, where Strabo reports a sanctuary of the hero-patron of mariners stood.202

The cult of Heracles is found mainly in Heraclea Pontica and its colonies, namely Chersonesus Taurica and Callatis. Mythological tradition wants it that Heraclea was the point from where Heracles entered the Underworld.203 Tradition also reports that the city was founded following an oracle advising the Boeotians to create a city dedicated to Heracles in the Black Sea.204 In Chersonesus Taurica, Heracles’ cult is confirmed by coins minted in the second quarter of the 3rd c. BC.205 In Callatis, where a temple dedicated to Heracles stood,206 the hero is depicted as Ktistes (founder) on city coins.207

Apart from these cities, his cult is also found in Histros, where the inscriptions report the existence of a club dedicated to the hero,208 Mesembria, where the hero was worshipped mainly as patron of adolescents,209 and Amisos.210

Another important cult in the Black Sea was that of the Dioscuri, found in Sinope, Amisos, Histros, Olbia, Odessa, Phanagoria and, of course, Discurias of northern Colchis, which traditions reports that was founded by the Dioscuri themselves211 or by Amphias and Kerkias (or Telecheas), their charioteers.212 The cult of the Dioscuri in the city lasted at least until the late 2nd c. BC, when certain coins minted by Discurias depicted the poles of the Dioscuri.213

Towards the late Hellenistic period, the singular cult of the hero Sosipolis was found in Mesembria, where a relief of the 2nd-1st c. BC depicting the hero was discovered.214

11. A General Assessment of the Cults of the Black Sea

The major deity of the Black Sea pantheon was Apollo, the patron of colonization, whose cult contributed, among others, to the wide dissemination of Dionysus’ cult by significantly broadening its services and leading to the emergence of the god as Ares and Eleuthereas (liberator). A significant position was also held by specific female cults, directly connected with either the foundation of cities, such as Aphrodite Urania, or local traditions, such as the cult of Parthenos. The great dissemination of the cults of heroes was due mainly to the necessity for an ideological connection of the Black Sea with the rest of the ancient Greek world.

The general characteristics of the region involve the coexistence of different devotional traditions, with an obvious assimilation of local elements in certain cases. In the Hellenistic period complex cults were disintegrated, while very ancient cults incorporated into them were at the same time revived, a phenomenon connected with the strengthening of popular religion as a result of the crisis of the ancient city. The tendency towards the elevation of deities of second generation after Zeus to a primary position is a sign of renewal, but at the same time it indicates the declining route the Greek cults followed from the foundation of the colonies until the end of Antiquity. In Roman years, there was deep penetration of various eastern cults, which created a completely different – multilevel and multicultural– picture of the pantheon.

In general, the Greek cults played an important role in uniting and connecting all colonies, and were an indispensable part of the ancient Greek world.

1. Freeman K., Greek City States (London 1950), p. 137; Ehrhardt N., Milet und seine Kolonien (Frankfurt-am-Mein – New York 1983), pp. 201, 251; Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), p. 31.

2. For a graphic reconstruction of the latter, see: Пичикян И. Р., Малая Азия – Северное Причерноморье: Античные традиции и влияния (Москва 1984), pp. 178-179, fig. 1, 5.

3. Толстиков В. П., Пантикапей – столица Боспора: Очерки археологии и истории Боспора (Москва 1992), pp. 66-67.

4. For a reconstruction of the temple and its architectural remains, see: Пичикян И. Р., Малая Азия – Северное Причерноморье: Античные традиции и влияния (Москва 1984), pp. 160-164.

5. See, for example: Sokolova O.Yu., “Nymphaion”, in Samoylova T.L. (edit.) Ancient Greek Sites in the Crimea (Kiev 2004), pp. 102-103.

6. Тюменев А. И., “Херсонесские этюды”, ВДИ 2 (3) (1938), pp. 265-275; Граков Б. Н., “Материалы по истории Скифии в греческих надписях Балканского полуострова и Малой Азии”, ВДИ 2(3) (1939), p. 248, no. 13.

7. Золотарев М. И., “О культе божественной триады в эллинистическом Херсонесе”, in Лазаров М. (edit.), Боговете на Понта (Варна 1998), pp. 64-66.

8. Кадеев В. И., Херсонес Таврический: Быт и культура (Ι-ΙΙΙ вв. н. э.) (Харьков 1996), p. 155.

9. Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), p. 225.

10. Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 275; Alexandrescu P., “Istria in archaischer Zeit”, in Alexandrescu P., Schuller W. (edit.), Histria: Eine Griechenstadt an der rumänischen Schwarzmeerküste, Xenia, 25 (Konstanz, 1990), p. 83 n. 91.

11. Pippidi D.M., Scythica Minora: Recherches sur les colonies grecques du litoral roumain de la mer Noire (Bucureşti – Amsterdam 1975), p. 134.

12. Hannell Κ., Megarische studien (Lund 1934), pp.167, 171-172.

13. IGBR, I² , 315.

14. Prechlenov Hr., “Messambria“, in: Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea, 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 162.

15. IGBR, I², 307, 307bis, 308bis, 308undec, 312, 315.

16. IGBR, I², 388, 399, 403.

17. Strabo, 6. 6. 1; App., Ill. 30; Plin. Nat. hist. 4. 13.

18. IGBR, I², 399, 400,403; Pick B., Die antiken Münzen Nord-Griechenlands: Dacien und Moesien, 1 (Berlin 1898), pp. 146, 243 and no. 184; Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 247.

19. Hind J., “Greek and Barbarian Peoples on the Shores of the Black Sea”, Archaeological Reports 30 (1983-1984), 74.

20. Minchev Α., “Odessos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 243.

21. Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 257.

22. Bilabel F., Die Ionische Kolonisation (Leipzig 1920), p. 129.

23. ИАК I (1901) pp. 94-103; Каухчишвили Т. С., Греческие надписи Грузии (Тбилиси 1951), p. XI. For the phiale, see: Ростовцев М. И., Скифия и Боспор (Ленинград 1925), p. 571.

24. Anderson J., Cumont F., Grégoire H., Studia Pontica. Recueil des inscriptions grecques et latines du Pont et de l'Arménie. 3:1 (Bruxelles 1910), p. 29 no. 18; Atasoy S., “Amisos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 2 (Thessaloniki 2003), pp. 1334, 1363.

25. Ehrhardt N., Milet und seine Kolonien (Frankfurt-am-Main – Bern – New York 1983), pp. 148, 153; Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), pp. 106-107; Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), from p. 288 onwards.

26. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), p. 106.

27. IOSPE, I², 190.

28. Карышковский П. О., Монеты Ольвии (Киев 1988), p. 97.

29. Ustinova Ju., Supreme Gods of the Bosporan Kingdom: Celestial Aphrodite and the Most High God (Leiden – Boston – Köln 1999), p. 60.

30. CIRB, 1040, 1114.

31. CIRB, 1014.

32. Соломоник Э. И. (edit.), Граффити античного Херсонеса (Киев1978), p. 7.

33. IOSPE, I², 403, 414.

34. Соломоник Э. И., Новые эпиграфические памятники Херсонеса (Киев 1973), pp. 80-81.

35. Lambrino S., “La famille d’ Apollon a Histria”, Αρχ. Έφημ. 100 (Athens 1937), pp. 359-361, ISM, I, 172.

36. See: Hannell Κ., Megarische studien (Lund 1934), p.191; Pick B., Die antiken Münzen Nord-Griechenlands: Dacien und Moesien, 1 (Berlin 1898), nos 248-252, respectively.

37. Săuciuc-Saveanu Th., “Un fragment de epigramă greacă pentru Nikasó din Kallatis“, Pontice: Muzeul de Arheologie, Costanta, Annuale 2 (1969), pp. 245-252.

38. Канараке В., Археологический музей в Констанце (Бухарест 1967), p. 54.

39. SEG, ΙΙΙ, 557; Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 245.

40. Minchev A., “Odessos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 244.

41. ΙGBR, I², 33.

42. Лордкипанидзе О. Д., “Божества города Фасиса: (Аполлон или Аполлинарная триада?)”, ВДИ 1 (1997), pp. 32-34; Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), p. 291.

43. Zos., 1. 32. 3.

44. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), p. 104.

45. Назаров В. В., “Святилище Афродиты в Борисфене”, ВДИ 1 (2001), p. 164; Русяева А. С., “Афродита Урания – патронесса милетско- понтийской колонизации”, Боспорский феномен: Колонизация региона, формирование полисов, образование государства 1, (Санкт- Петербург 2001), p. 19.

46. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), pp. 103-106; Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), pp. 299-300.

47. Самойлова Т. Л., Тира в VI-I вв. до н. э. (Киев 1988), p. 79.

48. Русяева А. С., “Афродита Урания – патронесса милетско-понтийской колонизации”, Боспорский феномен: Колонизация региона, формирование полисов, образование государства 1, (Санкт-Петербург 2001), pp. 20-21.

49. Sokolowski F., “Aphrodite as Guardian of Greek Magistrates”, Harvard Theological Review 57 (1964), pp. 1-8; Croissant F., Salviat F, “Aphrodite gardienne des magistrates”, BCH 90 (1966), pp. 460-471.

50. Сокольский М.И., “Храм Афродиты в Кепах”, СА 4 (1964), pp. 101-18; Burkert W., Griechische Religion der archaischen und klassischen Epoche (Stuttgart – Berlin – Köln 1977), p. 239; Ehrhardt N., Milet und seine Kolonien (Frankfurt am Main – Bern – New York 1983), p. 464; Tsetskhladze G. R., Kuznetsov V. D., “On the Cult of Aphrodite in Kepoi”, in Tsetskhladze G.R., Prag A.J.N., Snodgrass A.M. (edit.) Periplous: Papers on Classical Art and Archaeology Presented to Sir John Boardman (London 2000), pp. 353-360.

51. Hec., 165; Strabo, 11. 2. 10; Ptol., 5. 8. 2; Plin., Nat. hist. 6. 18.

52. Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), p. 149.

53. Тохтасьев С. Р., “Апатур: История боспорского святилища Афродиты”, ВДИ 2 (1986), pp. 138-145; Зубарев В. Г., “Античная география Европейского Боспора по Клавдию Птолемею”, Древности Боспора 1 (Mосква 1998), p. 79; Зубарев В. Г., “Азиатский Боспор (Таманский полуостров) по данным античной письменной традиции”, Древности Боспора 2 (Москва 1999), p. 136.

54. Кобылина М.М. (edit.), Терракотовые статуэтки: Пантикапей, (Москва 1974), pl. 5:5.

55. Молева Н. В., Очерки сакральной жизни Боспора (Нижний Новгород 2002), pp. 95-106.

56. CIRB, 971, 972, 1111.

57. Алексеева Е. М., Античный город Горгиппия (Москва 1997), pp. 63-65, 184, 219.

58. Мещеряков В. Ф., Религия и культы Херсонеса Таврического в I-IV вв. н. э. (Автореферат канд. дис. Москва 1980), p. 9; Иванова А. П., Чубова А. П., Колесникова Л. Г., Античная скульптура Херсонеса (Киев 1976), nos 25-29, 33, 37-43.

59. Белов Г. Д., “Терракоты Херсонеса”, САИ Г 1-11, ч. II (Москва 1970), pp. 70, 73; Сапрыкин С. Ю., “Афродита с двумя эротами из Херсонеса Таврического”, Херсонесский сборник 9 (Севастополь 1998), pp. 59-71.

60. Пичикян И. Р., Малая Азия – Северное Причерноморье: Античные традиции и влияния (Москва 1984), p. 252, Крыжицкий С. Д., Архитектура античных государств Северного Причерноморья (Киев 1993), pp. 191-193.

61. Pippidi D. M. Studii de istorie a religiilor antice: Texte şi interpretări (Bucureşti 1969), pp. 44-47.

62. Alexandrescu P., “Istria in archaischer Zeit“, in Alexandrescu P., Schuller W. (edit.), Histria: Eine Griechenstadt an der rumänischen Schwarzmeerküste, Xenia, 25 (Konstanz, 1990), pp. 56-58.

63. Zimmermann K., “Zu den Dachterrakotten griechischer Zeit aus Histria“, in Alexandrescu P., Schuller W. (edit.), Histria: Eine Griechenstadt an der rumänischen Schwarzmeerküste, Xenia 25 (Konstanz 1990), from p. 155 onwards.

64. Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 245.

65. Nedev D., Panayotova K., “Apollonia Pontica”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), pp. 102,106.

66. IGBR, I², 325.

67. Waddington W., Babelon E., Reinach Th., Recueil générale des monnaies grecques d’ Asie Mineure, I (Paris 1925), p. 52 nos 106, 129b.

68. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), pp. 37-38.

69. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), p. 127.

70. Русяева А. С., Земледельческие культы в Ольвии догетского времени (Киев 1979), pp. 41-43.

71. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), pp. 85-86.

72. Kobylina M., La sculpture antique sur le littoral nord de la mer Noire (Moscou 1972), pl. 4.

73. CIRB, 14.

74. See: Худяк М. М., Из истории Нимфея VI-III вв. до н. э. (Ленинград 1962), pp. 36-42; Шургая И. Г., “Нимфей”, in: Кошеленко Г.А., Кругликова И.Т., Долгоруков В.С. (edit.) Античные города Северного Причерноморья (Москва 1984), pp. 63-64.

75. Гайдукевич В. Ф., Боспорское царство (Москва -Ленинград 1949), p. 286.

76. Завойкин А. А., “Образы и символы Матери и Дочери в святилище элевсинских богинь на Береговом 4”, Боспорский феномен: Погребальные памятники и святилища 1 (Санкт-Петербург 2002), pp. 259-266.

77. Масленников А. А., “Сельский теменос (?) в восточном Крыму”, ВДИ 4 (1997), pp. 150- 171.

78. P. Oros., 6. 5. 4.

79. Гайдукевич В. Ф., Боспорское царство (Москва -Ленинград 1949), pp. 405-408.

80. Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 245.

81. Hannell Κ., Megarische studien (Lund 1934), pp. 180-181; IGBR I², 342.

82. IGBR 5, 5095.

83. Pippidi D.M., Scythica Minora: Recherches sur les colonies grecques du litoral roumain de la mer Noire (Bucureş ti – Amsterdam 1975), p. 137.

84. Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 257.

85. Minchev A., “Odessos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 238.

86. Gabelia A. N., “Dioskourias”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 1224.

87. Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), pp. 382-383.

88. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), pp. 92-95, p. 94, fig. 28.

89. Сон Н. А., “Греческие культы Тиры первых веков нашей эры”, in Анохин В.А, Бибиков С.Н., Русяева А.С. (edit.), Исследования по античной археологии Северного Причерноморья (Киев1980), p. 127.

90. Гайдукевич В. Ф., Боспорское царство (Москва -Ленинград 1949), pp. 241-242.

91. Гайдукевич В. Ф., Боспорское царство (Москва -Ленинград 1949), p. 277.

92. Анохин В. А., Монетное дело Боспора (Киев 1986), nos 156, 161, 166, 171, 178, 178a, 181, 183-185.

93. IOSPE, I², 406.

94. Трейстер М. Ю., “Материалы к корпусу постаментов бронзовых статуй Северного Причерноморья”, Херсонесский сборник X (Севастополь 1999), p. 127.

95. Золотарев М. И., Буйских А. В., “Теменос античного Херсонеса: Опыт архитектурной реконструкции”, ВДИ 3 (1994), pp. 78-79, 84-88.

96. Анохин В. А., Монетное дело Херсонеса (IV в. до н. э. –XII в. н. э.) (Киев 1977), nos 159-163.

97. IGBR, I², 326.

98. IGBR, I², 300.

99. Waddington W., Babelon E., Reinach Th., Recueil générale des monnaies grecques d’ Asie Mineure, I (Paris 1925), Amisos, nos 1-50.

100. IOSPE, I², 166, Розанова Н. В., “Бронзовое зеркало с надписью из Ольвии”, in Гайдукевич В.Ф. (edit.), Античная история и культура Средиземноморья и Причерноморья (Ленинград 1968), pp. 248-251; Русяева А. С., Земледельческие культы в Ольвии догетского времени (Киев 1979), pp. 80-81.

101. Толстой И. И., Греческие граффити древних городов Северного Причерноморья (Москва 1953), pp. 15-16; Русяева А. С., Земледельческие культы в Ольвии догетского времени (Киев 1979), pp. 80-83.

102. Русяева А. С., Античные терракоты Северо-Западного Причерноморья VI-I вв. до н. э. (Киев 1982), pp. 99-102; Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), p. 99.

103. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), pp. 177-178.

104. Сон Н. А., “Греческие культы Тиры первых веков нашей эры”, in Анохин В.А, Бибиков С.Н., Русяева А.С. (edit.), Исследования по античной археологии Северного Причерноморья (Киев1980), p. 129; Самойлова Т. Л., Тира в VI-I вв. до н. э. (Киев 1988), p. 78.

105. Зубарь В. М., “О некоторых аспектах идеологической жизни населения Херсонеса Таврического в позднеантичный период”, in Обряды и верования древнего населения Украины (Киев 1990), pp. 66, 68-70.

106. Polyaenus, Strat., 5. 44; Ath., 8. 347D.

107. Гайдукевич В. Ф., Боспорское царство (Москва - Ленинград 1949), pp. 162-163.

108. CIRB, 15

109. See: Соколова О. Ю., “Новая посвятительная надпись из Нимфея”, Hyperboreus, 8, 1 (Petropoli-München 2002), pp. 99-121; Sokolova O. Y., “Nymphaion”, in Samoylova T.L. (edit.) Ancient Greek Sites in the Crimea (Kiev 2004), p. 96 (fig.), pp. 103-105; Тохтасьев С.Р., “Боспор и Синдика в эпоху Левкона I”, ВДИ 3 (2004), pp. 157-175.

110. Иванова А. П., Чубова А. П., Колесникова Л. Г., Античная скульптура Херсонеса (Киев 1976), nos 3, 4, 6-21.

111. Трейстер М. Ю., “Бронзовая матрица з Херсонеса”, Археологiя 1 (Киïв 1990), pp. 133-137.

112. IGBR, I², 20.

113. IGBR, I², 22.

114. IGBR, I², 14.

115. Hannell Κ., Megarische studien (Lund 1934), from p. 182 onwards.

116. Head B., Historia Numorum² (Oxford 1911), p. 248.

117. IGBR, I², 351.

118. Velkov V., “Antike Tempel in Mesambria Pontica”, Klio 52 (1970), pp. 465-471.

119. IGBR, I², 308 ter.

120. Pippidi D.M., Scythica Minora: Recherches sur les colonies grecques du litoral roumain de la mer Noire (Bucureş ti – Amsterdam 1975), pp. 138-158.

121. IGBR, I², 388 bis, 401.

122. Pippidi D.M., Scythica Minora: Recherches sur les colonies grecques du litoral roumain de la mer Noire (Bucureş ti – Amsterdam 1975), p. 233.

123. IGBR, I², 195, 351.

124. Atasoy S., “Amisos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 2 (Thessaloniki 2003), pp. 1363-1364.

125. ЯйленкоВ. П., Греческая колонизация VII-III вв. до н. э. (Москва 1982), pp. 290-291.

126. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), pp. 55-57.

127. Карасев А. Н., “Монументальные памятники ольвийского теменоса”, Ольвия: Теменос и агора (Москва - Ленинград 1964), pp. 113-129.

128. IOSPE, Ι², 25.

129. Виноградов Ю. Г., Политическая история Ольвийского полиса VII-I вв. до н. э. (Москва 1989), p. 147.

130. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), p. 59.

131. Виноградов Ю. Г., Политическая история Ольвийского полиса VII-I вв. до н. э. (Москва 1989), pp. 136-138.

132. Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), pp. 376- 377.

133. Толстой И. И., Греческие граффити древних городов Северного Причерноморья (Москва 1953), no. 112.

134. Толстой И. И., Греческие граффити древних городов Северного Причерноморья (Москва 1953), no. 160.

135. CIRB, 29, 868.

136. CIRB, 36, 76.

137. Секерская Н. М., Античный Никоний и его округа в VI-IV вв. до н. э. (Киев 1989), p. 110.

138. IOSPE, I2, 401.

139. Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), pp. 380-381.

140. ΙSM, I, 8, Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), pp. 272, 275; SEG, XVIII, 288; Alexandrescu P., “Istria in archaischer Zeit”, in Alexandrescu P., Schuller W. (edit.), Histria: Eine Griechenstadt an der rumänischen Schwarzmeerküste, Xenia, 25 (Konstanz 1990), pp. 57, 75; Avram A., “Istria”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 320.

141. Lambrino S., “Les tribus ioniennes d’ Histria”, Istros 1 (Bucureşti 1934), pp. 118-121; SEG, I, 327; Pippidi D.M., Scythica Minora: Recherches sur les colonies grecques du litoral roumain de la mer Noire (Bucureşti – Amsterdam 1975), p. 206.

142. SEG, XXIV, 1031.

143. SEG, I, 327, Pippidi D.M., Scythica Minora: Recherches sur les colonies grecques du litoral roumain de la mer Noire (Bucureşti – Amsterdam 1975), p. 206.

144. Ognenova-Marinova L., “Mesambria Pontica”, Wiadomości archeologiczne 44 :1 (Warszawa 1979), p. 37; Ognenova-Marinova L. “Mesambriacos portus”, Thracia Pontica 5 (Varna1994), p. 141; Velkov V., “Zur Geschichte der Mesambria Pontica im III Jh. v. u. z.”, in Acts of the 5th. International Congress of Greek and Latin Epigraphy (Oxford 1971), pp. 109-110; Prechlenov Hr., “Mesambria”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 162.

145. Ognenova L., “Les fouilles de Mésambria”, BCH 84 :1 (1960), p. 229.

146. Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), pp. 125,128.

147. Русяева А. С., Религия и культы античной Ольвии (Киев 1992), pp. 87-90.

148. Анохин В.А., Монеты античных городов северо-западного Причерноморья (Киев 1989), nos 127-215.

149. Худяк М. М., Из истории Нимфея VI-III вв. до н. э. (Ленинград 1962), pl. 7/1, 8/1.

150. See, for example: Сапрыкин С. Ю., Масленников А. А., “Люди и их боги: религиозное мировозрение в Понтийском царстве”, in Маринович Л.П. (edit.) Человек и общество в античном мире (Москва 1998), pp. 406, 416-418.

151. Анохин В. А., Монетное дело античных городов Северо-Западного Причерноморья (Киев 1989), pp. 46, 109-110.

152. CIRB, 74, 1123, 1126.

153. CIRB, 63.

154. Соломоник Э. И. (edit.), Граффити античного Херсонеса (Киев 1979), p. 7.

155. Hdt., 4. 103.

156. Зограф А. Н., Античные монеты (МИА 16, Москва 1951), p. 149; Зограф А. Н., “Статуарные изображения Девы по данным нумизматики”, ИРАИМК, 2 (1922), pp. 353-354; Анохин В. А., Монетное дело Херсонеса (IVв. до н. э.- XII в. н. э.) (Киев 1977), p. 64.

157. IOSPE, I², 344, 352.

158. Латышев В. В., “Гражданская присяга херсонессцев”, in Латышев В. В., ΠOΝΤΙΚΑ (Санкт-Петербург 1909), pp. 321-326; Кадеев В. И., Херсонес Таврический в первых веках нашей эры (Харьков 1981), pp. 68-70.

159. Strabo, 7. 4. 2.

160. IOSPE, I², 401.

161. IOSPE, I², 436, Соломоник Э. И., Новые эпиграфические памятники Херсонеса (Киев 1964), p. 60.

162. See: Solomonik E. I., Neues um Asklepioskult in Chersonesos, Klio 57/2 (1975), pp. 433-442. Asclepius’ cult was particularly widespread in most cities of the Black Sea in that period. Relevant evidence comes from Odessa, Mesembria, Tomis, Sinope, Amisos: IGBR, I², 76, 315, ISM, I, 135, ISM, II, 117, 118; Waddington W., Babelon E., Reinach Th., Recueil générale des monnaies grecques d’ Asie Mineure, I (Paris 1925), Sinope 100b, Amisos 84, 113.

163. IOSPE, I², 376.

164. Орешников А.В., “Херсонас – божество Херсонеса Таврического: на основании нумизматики”, ИАК 65 (1918), pp. 144 – 152; Орешников А.В., “Олицетворение общины Херсонеса Таврического на монетах” – ИРАИМК 2 (1922), pp. 159-164; Мещеряков В.Ф., “Державні культи Діви і Херсонас у Херсонесі Таврійському 1 – 3 ст. н.е.”, Вісник Харківського університету, 211:12 (Харків 1980), pp. 64 – 72.

165. Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 277.

166. Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 277.

167. Pippidi D.M., Scythica Minora: Recherches sur les colonies grecques du litoral roumain de la mer Noire (Bucureş ti – Amsterdam 1975), p. 82.

168. Avram A., “Istria”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 304.

169. ISM, I, 1.

170. ISM, I, 19.

171. Анохин В. А., Монетное дело античных городов Северо-Западного Причерноморья (Киев 1989), pp. 46, 109-110.

172. IGBR, I², 315, 322 ter.

173. IGBR, I², 322.

174. Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 245; Nedev D., Panayotova K., “Apollonia Pontica“, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 106.

175. Bilabel F., Die ionische Kolonisation (Leipzig 1920), from p. 106 onwards; Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 247.

176. Oppermann, M., Die westpontischen Poleis in vorrömischer Zeit und ihr indigenes Umfeld (Langenweißbach 2003), p. 103.

177. IGBR, I², 398; Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 247.

178. IGBR, I², 380-382; Isaak B., The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest (Leiden 1986), p. 245.

179. Minchev A., “Odessos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), pp. 233-234.

180. IGBR, I², 45.

181. Данов Х. М., Западният бряг на Черно море в древността (София1947), p. 107. The cult of this god is also traced in other cities of the western coast, particularly Histros and Dionysopolis: Minchev A., “Odessos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003); pp. 237, 244, 252-255; Avram A., “Istria”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 1 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 322.

182. ISM, II, 387.

183. Bilabel F., Die ionische Kolonisation (Leipzig 1920), pp. 114, 116.

184. Arr., Peripl. M. Eux. 11.

185. Pomp. Mela, 1. 108, 111.

186. Atasoy S., “Amisos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 2 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 1363.

187. Waddington W., Babelon E., Reinach Th., Recueil générale des monnaies grecques d’ Asie Mineure, I (Paris 1925), Sinope 48, 73, from 94 onwards, Amisos 82, from 137 onwards.

188. Waddington W., Babelon E., Reinach Th., Recueil générale des monnaies grecques d’ Asie Mineure, I (Paris 1925), pl.25, 26:58.

189. Strabo, 12. 3.11; Plut., Luc. 23; App., Mith, 12. 83.

190. CIG, III, 4162.

191. Ps-Arr., Per. 22. 8, 35-38.

192. Анохин В. А., Монетное дело античных городов Северо-Западного Причерноморья (Киев 1989), pp. 46, 109-110.

193. As regards the issue of whether Achilles was worshipped only as a hero or as a god as well, opinions are divided. However, judging from the dissemination, the role and the rituals of his cult, as well as from the fact that it was a cult spread in colonies, the second scenario sounds more possible.

194. See: Русяева А. С., “Культовi предмети з поселення Бейкуш поблизу о-ва Березань”, Археологiя 2 (Киïв1971), pp.22-29; Буйских С. Б., “Исследование святилища Ахилла на Бейкушском мысу (предварительные итоги)”, Херсонесский сборник XI (Севастополь 2001), pp. 34-43, including relevant bibliography.

195. See: Arr., Peripl. M. Eux. 32-34; Paus., 3. 19. 11; Eur., Andr. 1260-1262; Antig. Car., 122, 134; Plin., Nat. hist. 4. 93; Philostr., Her. 19.

196. Охотников С. Б., Островерхов А. С., Святилище Ахилла на острове Левке (Змеином) (Киев 1993), pp. 7-119; Охотников С. Б., “Ахилл – покровитель Понта”, in Лазаров М. (edit.), Боговете на Понта (Варна 1998), pp. 38, 76.

197. Русяева А. С., Религия понтийских эллинов в античную эпоху: Мифы. Святилища. Культы олимпийских богов и героев (Киев 2005), p. 113.

198. Крыжицкий С. Д., Архитектура античных государств Северного Причерноморья (Киев 1993), p. 47.

199. Виноградов Ю. Г., Политическая история Ольвийского полиса VII-I вв. до н. э.: Историко-эпиграфическое исследование (Москва 1989), pp. 164-165.

200. Русяева А. С., О храме Ахилла на острове Левка в Понте Эвксинском, ВДИ 1 (2004), pp. 177-190.

201. Eur., IT 435-438.

202. Strabo, 11. 2. 6.

203. Xen., Αn. 6. 2. 2.

204. Just., 16. 3. 4-7.

205. Анохин В. А., Монетное дело Херсонесса (IVв. до н. э. – XII в. н. э.) (Киев 1977), nos 91-102.

206. Memnon, FHG III B, 434. 13.

207. Pick B., Die antiken Münzen Nord-Griechenlands: Dacien und Moesien, 1 (Berlin 1898), pp. 84, 87.

208. ΙSM, I, 57.

209. IGBR, I², 22.

210. Atasoy S., “Amisos”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 2 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 1363.

211. Pomp. Mela, 1. 19.

212. Plin., Nat. Hist. 6. 16; Solin. 15. 17.

213. Gabelia A.N., “Dioskourias”, in Grammenos D.V., Petropoulos E.K. (edit.) Ancient Greek Colonies in the Black Sea 2 (Thessaloniki 2003), p. 1244.

214. IGBR, 5, no. 5103.
     
 
 
 
 
 

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