1. Location – General Information

As it is known, the region of Caesarea was the place where theology thrived from the 3rd until the 5th century, including some of the most important figures of the Orthodox Church. The metropolis of Caesarea was established in the early Christian period¹ as "protothronos", that is, first in hierarchy as well as in status among the dioceses of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Its metropolitan had the title "most honourable among the most honourable and exarch of all Orient". The prestigious ecclesiastical history of the city contributed to it being selected as the seat of the Turkish Orthodox patriarchate, which was established in 1922-1923 by Papa Eftim Karachisaridis, who aimed to integrate the Turkish-speaking Christians from Asia Minor into the Turkish national community.

During the late medieval years and after the Turkish conquests, especially from the 14th century on, the metropolis (from now on: diocese) fell into decline. Nevertheless, it survived unlike other dioceses that gradually disappeared. Its decline is expressed by the fact that former dioceses were ceded to it² in order to reinforce its financial condition. The regions of Cappadocia and Lycaonia, which used to include 5 dioceses and 29 bishoprics, were thus put under the control of one and only prelate.³

Apart from the aforementioned decline, the Diocese of Caesarea possibly was inactive for some time during the 15th and/or the 16th century, despite the patriarchal Notitia of 1500 or the consecration of metropolitans, which obviously concerned only its title. A characteristic indication of this fact is the case of the metropolitan Metrophanes, the subsequent Ecumenical Patriarch Metrophanes III of Constantinople. While being the metropolitan of Caesarea, he was in Venice, where he was in charge of the Greek Orthodox community. The political instability and the disasters the area suffered in the 15th century, as well as the lack of references both to metropolitans for a long period (mid-14th – second half of 16th century) and to the diocese in the patriarchal berats of 1483 and 1525 (which concerned the active dioceses of the time) justify the opinion that the diocese was essentially inactive at the time – possibly until the end of the 16th century.⁴

In the first volume of his four-volume work on Cappadocia, which concerned its ecclesiastical history,⁵ A. Levidis provides a list of metropolitans of Caesarea. For the period between the 15th and the 19th century, the first reference to a metropolitan of Caesarea - and actually the first reference to a metropolitan in Caesarea after the mid-14th century - concerns Metrophanes of Constantinople, who occupied the throne in 1554 and never went to Caesarea to exercise his duties. Metrophanes was succeeded by Euthymios II in 1571 and the latter by Pachomios in 1572.⁶

After an interval of a hundred years metropolitan Gregorios is reported in 1672. He was succeeded by Kyprianos (1700), Ieremias from Patmos (both became Patriarchs later on), Neophytos from Patmos, who founded the historic monastery of St. John Prodromos in Zincidere (Flaviana) in 1728 and became Patriarch in 1734. Later on, we find Parthenios and in 1760 Paisios, who was removed for abuse of authority. He was succeeded by Makarios, in his turn succeeded by Gregorios Athenaios (1773), who took educational initiatives and founded schools. Then come Leontios from Meleniko (Melnik), Philotheos from Tirnovo, Meletios from Neokaisareia, Ioannikios from Nicaea, Chrysanthos, Gerasimos Trapezountios, and Paisios. In 1871 was ordained Eustathios Kleovoulos, an important personality of the Cappadocian ecclesiastical history was ordained. He took significant initiatives but also faced many reactions. He was succeeded by Methodios Aronis and Ioannes Anastasiadis in 1878.⁷

The territory of the Diocese of Caesarea was in the sancak of Kayseri (Kaisareia), but included also settlements of the vilayets of Adana, Konya (Ikonio) and Sivas (Sebasteia).⁸ In general, its borders to the east and to the west followed the administrative borders of the vilayets of Sivas and Konya, while to the north they followed the bed of the Alys River (Kızıl Irmak) and a main east tributary, thus forming a sharp point at their confluence. Another sharp point penetrating the vilayet of Adana and covering the wider region of Pharasa in Antitaurus was formed to the south.⁹

Kaisareia (Kayseri) was the seat of the sancak of the same name in the vilayet of Ankara and also the seat of the diocese. The city is in a dry plain of the plateau (about 1,000 m altitude), near ancient Caesarea, at the foot of Mount Argaion. The city also had an Armenian Catholic and an Armenian Gregorian bishop.¹⁰

In the region of Kaisareia there were sparse settlements of Greek Orthodox, often Turkish-speaking population. At a near distance was Talaş, which was the place of origin of the wealthiest inhabitants of Kaisareia. Zincidere was two hours to the southeast. There was the monastery of St. John Prodromos with the various educational foundations that were occasionally founded either inside the monastery or in the surrounding area. The monastery had a square floor plan and was a shrine not only for the Orthodox but also for the Armenians, even for Muslims.¹¹

At the north foot of Mount Argaion, two hours away from Caesarea, was Androniki (Endürlük), the birthplace of the historian Pavlos Karolidis. It was a holiday location in an area of exceptional natural beauty.¹²Moutalaski, the birthplace of Saint Sabbas the Sanctified († 532) was within one hour from the city, towards the southeast. Eastwards, also one hour away, were Tavlosun and Kermir. Three hours away from Kaisareia was the small settlement of Taxiarchis (Tarsiah or Yanartas), where the monastery of the Taxiarchs was built. Sarmousakli was built to the northeast of the city, with the monastery of Theotokos of Kerkeme, a dependency of the monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai. Six hours away from Kaisareia, towards the southwest, was İncesu, seat of the kaza of the same name. Moreover, to the southwest of the city was the thinly populated Karahisar-ı Develü, also a kaza seat.¹³ On the south end of the diocese’s territory, in the mountains of Antitaurus, was Pharasa (Varassos).¹⁴

To the west is Kirşehir, seat of the namesake sancak, built in a verdant plain in the course of an affluent of Alys River. North of Alys is the area of Yozgat; the city, a seat of a sancak, was founded in the end of the 18th century following the standards of a European city. The Greek Orthodox population of Yozgat belonged to the Diocese of Caesarea; nevertheless, an Armenian metropolitan was also seated in the city. Southeast of Yozgat was Akdağmaden, seat of the kaza of the same name. It was a small settlement founded colonized by miners from the Pontos in the late 18th century.¹⁵

Neapolis (Nevşehir) belonged to the vilayet of Konya and was ecclesiastically under the Diocese of Caesarea. It was the seat of a kaza and was founded in the late 18th century by Damat-Ibrahim Paşa, an Ottoman official.¹⁶ Northwest of Neapolis, four hours away, was Aravissos (Arabisson); in the 18th century it was renamed Gül-Sehir (City of Roses).¹⁷Prokopi (Ürgüp) was a kaza seat, built on rocky slopes, with many houses carved on the porous rocks.¹⁸ An hour away from Prokopi was Sinasos, built in small gorges – the area was rich in water resources and vegetation. The settlement had schools, clubs, a guest house, a reading room and a bath. Small settlements relating to Sinasos to the south were Zalela (Zemala, Eumorphochorio), and Potamia.¹⁹

The wider area of Cappadocia is characterised by its individual geomorphology, with areas covered by cone-shaped porous rocks. These rocks sometimes form simple pyramidal shapes and sometimes create eerie complexes which excited the popular imagination. The composition of the rocks, which are up to 80 m high, provided the possibility for the formation of closed areas by exploiting the cave-like openings and the carvings of the soft rock. In this way, entire subterranean areas could be created providing residence to fugitives and troglodytes. There were also settlements, the houses of which were entirely or partially inside the rocks, using built superstructures (as the case was in Prokopi), while in some cases, inside the carved areas, important churches and chapels were created.²⁰

2. Population

The total population of the congregation of the Diocese of Caesarea in the beginning of the 20th century, according to the information published in Xenophanes, the periodical of the club of Asia Minor Greeks ‘Anatoli’ in Athens, amounted to 45,245 believers.²¹

In 1500 Kaisareia had a small population of 1,848 families, only 60 of which were Greek Orthodox.²² However, in the 16th century, the Greek Orthodox increased by 240%.²³ Almost four centuries later, according to S. Antonopoulos, the population was 55,000, 40,000 of which were Muslims, 3,000 Greek Orthodox and 12,000 Armenians. According to the Ottoman yearbook of the mutasarrıflık of Kaisareia, the immediate district (kaymakamlık) was inhabited by 91,313 Muslims, 19,310 Greek Orthodox, 27,080 Armenians, 891 Catholics and 1,672 Protestants. According to P. Kontogiannis, the city had a population of 60,000, among whom there were 5,000 Greek Orthodox and 10,000 Armenians.²⁴

Androniki had a population of 2,000, Moutalaski 4,000, Tavlosun 3,000, Kermir 6,000 and İncesu 6,000.²⁵ In total, the İncesu kaymakamlık had 13,507 Muslims and 3,652 Greek Orthodox, while the kaymakamlık of Karahisar-ı Develü had 23,967 Muslims, 1,871 Greek Orthodox, 12,395 Armenians and 342 Protestants.²⁶

Kirşehir had a population of 8,000. Yozgat had a population of 18,500 in total, with 2,000 Greek Orthodox and 6,000 Armenians. Akdağmaden had a population of 2,000.²⁷

In 1883 Neapolis had 3,328 households, with the 7/10 of them being Greek Orthodox, according to Antonopoulos.²⁸ Later on, according to Kontogiannis, the population reached a total of 24,000, with 20,000 Greek Orthodox and 700 Armenians, while the remaining were Muslims. Aravissos had a population of 12,000, with 8,000 Muslims and 4,000 Greek Orthodox.²⁹Prokopi had 10,000 Muslims and 4,000 Greek Orthodox.³⁰ Sinasos had 3,000 Greek Orthodox and 1,000 Muslims.³¹

3. Economy

Kaisareia was in a location where the routes from all sides of the plateau converged (Ankara, Konya, Yozgat etc.), thus providing the possibility for trade. At the same time, there was a significant carpet-making and leather-processing business, mostly with the contribution of Armenian merchants.³² According to a report of the city’s Ottoman authorities, in 1898 there were 2,500 carpet factories, 1,600 of which made silk carpets and the remaining made wool carpets, with revenues of approximately 30,000 liras.³³

Kaisareia had benefited from the sultanic privileges conceded at times.³⁴ Nevertheless, the main economic outlook of the Greek Orthodox population in the wider area, since the first half of the 19th century, was immigration.³⁵ The inhabitants of Androniki migrated to areas where they could make a profit through trade, such as Constantinople, Egypt and distant Russia; it is indicative that the settlement of Tavlosun was nicknamed "Mikra Aigyptos" (Little Egypt).³⁶

In Moutalaski, the local economy was based on the production of millet, a natural colouring substance (for yellow and green colour), which was used in carpet-making and textile industry – Cappadocia produced millet of excellent quality, which, as a result, was a main export product, at least until the chemical dyes prevailed. Production in Moutalaski was as high as a million okas (1 oka = 1,280 grams).³⁷ In İncesu there was a carpet-making small industry as well as gardens and famous vineyards; many Greek Orthodox in these areas migrated to urban centres of the Empire.³⁸ Pharasa was on the road connecting Cappadocia with Cilicia and its coastline. The main occupation of the population was work at the local mines, which closed in the late 1870's, thus leading to the settlement's depopulation.³⁹

In Kirşehir, a prosperous settlement with well-built houses in poplar groves, there was extensive production of carpets, which were the main trade product. The area, in the valley of the Alys River, was fertile: wheat, grapes and fruits were among the crops, in parallel with stock-farming.⁴⁰ Yozgat held a great trade-fair every year, which lasted for 50 days, during June and July. The area produced fruit, mostly apricots, and cereals. Akdağmaden was an area with mines and an important metal production until the end of the 19th century.⁴¹

Neapolis (Nevşehir) was commercially developed and its inhabitants immigrated to Constantinople in order to expand their activities. The Greek Orthodox worked as merchants and craftsmen, while agricultural production was in the hands of the Muslims. The area of Prokopi had vineyards and significant production of fruits. The existence of ten brotherhoods is also reported in the city, having religious names and mostly representing guilds. These areas also produced millet, while they became new centres of carpet-making since the end of the 19th century.⁴² The inhabitants of Sinasos also migrated to Constantinople, manning mainly the guild of caviar makers, while later on the they expanded to the financial sector.⁴³

4. Education

Since the time it was founded, in the first half of the 18th century, the monastery of St. John Prodromos in Zincidere was an important centre of intellectual activity. It is also very likely that the subsequent development and diffusion of the Caramanli literature, which was mostly promoted by Serapheim the Pisidian, metropolitan of Ankara, , has its roots in the existence of handwritten books in the monastery.

In the second half of the 19th century, following an initiative of the metropolitans Eustathios Kleovoulos, who had been director of the Great School of the Nation, and Ioannis Anastasiadis, the Monastery's religious school as well as other schools were established in the area. The school of the Monastery of St. John Prodromos was originally established in 1804, but later on the effort weakened, until 1880, when the school was reestablished. At the same time, a Cappadocian brotherhood was established in Constantinople, aiming to organise financial contributions to the diocese's educational efforts. With the financial support of Theodoros Rodokanakis, which amounted to 5,000 francs per year, the religious school was reestablished. Its operation for thirty years (from 1882 until 1917, when the Ottoman authorities closed it down), was considered particularly successful. In the monastery's outer area, a girls’ school as well as orphanages for boys and girls were founded. A merchant and banker in Constantinople, Symeonakis Siniosoglou, sponsored the orphanages.⁴⁴

In 1902, the religious school had 108 intern students and was considered educationally equal to a high school. The school's expenses (together with the girls’ school) amounted from 1,600 to 2,000 Ottoman liras every year. The classes of the girls’ school covered up to the second grade of high school. Apart from the curriculum, practical tasks were also taught: carpet-making, cotton and silk processing. In 1902 there were 24 intern students and 8-10 external female students. The boys' orphanage hosted 35 orphans. Its expenses, including the girls’ orphanage, amounted to 500-600 liras per year.⁴⁵ The articles of association of the religious school explicitly mentioned the demand for at least 4 professors with degrees from the University of Athens, thus denoting educational relations with Greece.⁴⁶

In general, boys’ and girls’ schools had been founded in almost all the important settlements of the region of Kaisareia. Their main disadvantage, however, according to some writers of the time, was that their personnel came from the same area and had been educated in the religious school of Zincidere. S. Antonopoulos, a Greek diplomat and representative of Greek nationalism, wrote that, although ancient Greek was taught in the school, the children did not stop using and reproducing the local dialect. Due to financial problems the inhabitants were not able to recruit easily teachers from Greece, Constantinople or Smyrna.⁴⁷ The problems of education and manning many settlements with priests, were seen as leaving the field open for the protestant missionaries.⁴⁸ Behind the occasional negative comments of the local intellectuals regarding the progress of the educational procedures, we should recognize the challenges to national formation that were posed by the fact that a great part of the Greek Orthodox population was undoubtedly Turkish-speaking.

Kaisareia had an urban school as well as a six-grade girls' school with three female teachers, the ‘Andronikeion’, which was backed by the Cappadocian Brotherhood in Constantinople and the Society of Asia Minor Greeks ‘Anatoli’ in Athens. In Neapolis there was also a boys' and a girls' school.⁴⁹ In Moutalaski there were important school units. The Greek schools (in the period described by P. Kontogiannis) were of a high educational level, something which was obviously in immediate relation with the competition from the American schools, which were superior in resources and funds. The American schools had been established in the finest quarter of the city by American missionaries, thus creating a centre which gathered poor and orphan children from many regions, while there was also a hospital for patients. Both could be compared with the American school of Merzifon in the Pontos.⁵⁰

The tendency to introduce practical classes to the girls’ schools was also followed in the girls' school in İncesu, with classes of embroidery and sewing (as in the girls' school in Zincidere).⁵¹ Sinasos had schools for both girls and boys;⁵² the Turkish-speaking population of Neapolis also had schools – it was suggested that the boys' school use the building of an old carpet-making industry.⁵³