1. Location

The administrative quarter of Ephesus was between the hills Pion (Panayir) and Lepre Akte (Bülbül), where the complex of the Upper Agora (no. 18) , with buildings of religious and political character was situated. To the north the complex is defined by the foothill of the Panayir Dağ. Adjoining to the east is a bath complex (no. 16), while to the west is the temple of Domitian (no. 30). The Nymphaeum of Laecanius Bassus (no. 29) is situated in the southwestern corner of the agora. To the south runs one of the city’s main roads (no. 110), which led to the Magnesian Gate (no. 10); it was a section of the Processional Way which connected the Artemision with the administrative centre. Access to the agora from the south was via a monumental Doric gateway (no.19). Between the South Road and the complex there were shops and residential buildings.¹

2. Architectural design

The Agora’s original design was Hellenistic. During this first building phase, the complex’s open-air square was bordered by simple stoas along the north and south sides.²

The agora as we see it today dates from the age of Augustus. One can ascertain the complex’s alteration from a Hellenistic agora into a Roman forum which follows a rectangular design and clearly defined boundaries. The complex was rectangular, measuring approximately 160x58 m.

Along the northern side, from west to east, the prytaneum (no. 24), the temple of Augustus and Artemis (no. 23) and the odeum-bouleuterion (no. 22) were arranged. In front of these buildings there was a three -aisled basilica (no. 21), which formed the complex’s northern side.

The east and south sides were defined by stoas which must have belonged to the Hellenistic building phase. Along the wall of the southern Doric stoa there were marble benches. A Doric gateway (map no. 19) was at the stoa’s eastern end, while another, smaller Doric gateway was in its southwestern corner. The western side of the public agora was defined by individual monuments, such as the Pollio monument (no. 28) and fountains facing towards the temple of Domitian (no. 30).³ In the agora’s open-air square a peripteral temple was erected, dedicated to Caesar and Rome (no. 20); this was the focal point of the building concept during the reign of Augustus, following the example of imperial fora.⁴

3. Basilica

A two-storey, monumental three-aisled basilica (no. 21) of Greek type was constructed in the place of the Hellenistic one-aisled northern stoa. It contributed decisively to the alteration of the Hellenistic agora of Ephesus into a Roman forum.⁵ In contrast to the western type basilicas, the Ephesus basilica had an open south side. Its length exceeded that of the Agora’s square as its ends were enclosed by small rectangular rooms, chalcidica, as they are described by Vitruvius.⁶ Four steps are formed in the middle section of the basilica’s façade towards the square. The width of the side aisles was 4.72 m., and of the middle aisle 6.85 m. The columns of the façade were ionic and crowned by ionic capitals, while the interior colonnades carried capitals decorated with bull’s heads (bucrania). A few years after the erection of the building, the rear wall was strengthened with marble orthostates and Corinthian columns were placed in the intercolumniation of the interior colonnades, possibly to repair damages caused by earthquakes.

Single-pitch roofs must have covered the side aisles, while the double pitched roof of the middle aisle was possibly raised and had oppenings which allowed the lighting of the interior. At the building’s short sides, the middle aisle communicated with the chalcidica via arched openings.

A votive inscription from the building’s architrave (epistyle) records that the basilica was dedicated to the goddess Artemis, the emperors Augustus and Tiberius, and the Demos. The names of Sextilius Pollio and his family have been reinstated as the sponsors.⁷ The construction of the basilica was included in the Agora’s restoration programme during the reign of Augustus, while the construction was completed circa 11-13 AD. During Nero’s reign (43-68 AD) the western chalcidicum (no. 27) was added, which internally was divided into three chambers. Access to the west chalcidicum was gained by doors from the Domitian square. Ionic columns and pillars consisted the upper-strorey architecture. During the Late Roman period the western chalcidicum was converted into a church.⁸

The eastern chalcidicum of the basilica was reconstructed during the Byzantine period into a peristyle courtyard, while the preserved Corinthian columns seem to have belonged to the original upper-storey architecture of the colonnade.

From a functional point of view, the presence of a basilica within the city’s state agora marks its political character and refers to the general use of this building type as a civic and administrative hall. Fragments and bases of imperial portraits of the Julio-Claudian dynasty found in the area confirm the splendid sculptural decoration and luxury of the building’s interior. Amongst them, the colossal portraits of Augustus and his wife Livia, which possibly decorated the eastern chalcidicum, are of special interest.

4. Prytaneum

The Prytaneum (no. 24) is situated on the north side of the Ephesus’ public agora, next to the odeum-bouleuterion. It consisted of a peristyle courtyard to the north of which two non-communicating sets of rooms were arranged. Archaeological research of the area detected four building phases, but the largest part of the ruins date from the age of Augustus. From here a small road began, the so-called “Clivus Sacer”, which turned slightly diagonally to meet the Couretes Street, which secured immediate access and communication with the lower part of the Roman city.

5. Temenos

In the area (no. 23) between the prytaneum and the odeum-bouleuterion of Ephesus was a large open courtyard, measuring 33x28 m., bordered by colonnades on three sides.⁹ The Ionic capitals and the bases of the columns followed the Hellenistic tradition. Inside the courtyard was a raised structure with a staircase. It has been suggested that it formed the podium for an architectural composition in the form of altars or small temples.

It was initially thought that an altar existed in the area more likely, which was connected architecturally and functionally to the prytaneum and dated to the Hellenistic period.¹⁰ Later, this structure was identified as a shrine for Divus Caesar and Dea Roma, while typologically it is restored as two prostyle ionic temples raised on a podium, an original design with strong Roman influence for the area of Asia Minor.¹¹ In more recent publications of the Ephesus’ topography, however, it is identified as a temenos with altars of Augustus and Artemis, and dates earlier than 25 BC.¹²

6. Odeum - bouleuterion

The odeum-bouleuterion was situated in the northeastern section of the public agora. Its original construction dates from the Hellenistic period. During the Imperial years, extensive alterations took place and it evolved into a new type of theatrical building with a double function.

7. Temple of Caesar and Rome

In the interior of the Agora’s square was a small peripteral temple. It is dated to the second half of the 1^st century BC and must have been destroyed during Late Antiquity.

Initially it was thought that this temple was dedicated to the worship of the Egyptian deity Isis and the god Dionysus,¹³ while its construction was connected to the visit of Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra to the town in 32 BC. According to another opinion, the temple was dedicated to Augustus.¹⁴ In recent papers the temple has been identified as the sanctuary of the divine Caesar and the Dea Roma, built by the Conventus Civium Romanorum (association of Roman citizens), with Augustus’ permission after 29 BC and was one of the first temples of imperial cult in the city.¹⁵

The temple, measuring 22.24x14.50 m., was possibly built in the Corinthian order with 6x10 columns and had pronaos and cella. Only its foundations are visible today, constructed with rectangular and polygonal limestones, filled with opus caementicium. The crepidoma must have had 4 steps, the columns’ diameter was around 0.60 m., and the intercolumnar space must have been 1.85 m.¹⁶

8. Southern Doric Gate

The Doric Gate is situated on the south road which comes from the Magnesian Gate and marks the entrance to the public agora. Only its exterior southern section with a façade 8.40 m. long and 2.95 m. depth survives today. Its ground plan had 4 prostyle Doric columns (0.77 m. in diameter) and two pillars (0.58 m. wide). It is made of marble. The columns were approximately 5.39 m. in height. The entablature was of the regular Doric type with a three-banded architrave, with triglyphs and metopes on the frieze and a Doric cornice with mutules and guttae, while the pediment was decorated with a round shield. The gate has been dated on the basis of the stylistic characteristics of its architectural ornamentation to the Hellenistic period (2^nd/1^st century BC).¹⁷

9. Identification of the complex

The architectural development of the public agora during the age of Augustus aimed at its alteration from a peristyle agora into a Roman forum following the Roman models. This was achieved with the erection of the oblong basilica on the north side, which reduced the area of the square and emphasized the complex’s outline. The erection of the temple of Caesar and Rome inside the Agora was of great importance, and despite its non-axial arrangement in the square, it was elevated into a central element of the composition. The Agora’s buildings, although disparate in architectural design and form, had a clear public and religious character, and thus constituted the city’s administrative and political centre. Moreover, the character of the religious buildings altered the complex into a monumental area of Imperial cult.¹⁸ It is also worth noting that the Agora of Ephesus bears similarities, with parallel types of public buildings in Asia Minor, such as the imperial forum of Augustus in Pisidian Antioch and the forum in Cremna in Pisidia.

10. Later years

Until the 4^th century AD the complex did not undergo any changes. In 358, 365 and 368 AD the city was struck by destructive earthquakes. A large part of the basilica was destroyed. It is possible that restoration of the damaged areas and a more general building programme took place during the reign of Theodosius II (408-450). The aforementioned hypothesis is based on an inscription which records the forum Theodosianum, which is identified with the city’s state agora by the scholars .¹⁹